Resistive heater for in situ formation heating

ABSTRACT

Methods for heating a subsurface formation using an electrical resistance heater are provided. Preferably, the subsurface formation is an organic-rich rock formation, including, for example, an oil shale formation. The method may include providing an electrically conductive first member in a wellbore in a subsurface formation, an electrically conductive second member in the wellbore, and an electrically conductive granular material in the wellbore. The granular material is positioned so as to provide an electrical connection between the first member and the second member. An electrical current is established across the first member, the granular material and the second member so as to generate resistive heat within the granular material. The surrounding subsurface formation is thereby conductively heated so as to cause formation hydrocarbons in the formation to be heated, and in some cases, pyrolyzed to form hydrocarbon fluids.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.12/075,087 filed Mar. 7, 2008, which claims the benefit of U.S.Provisional patent application Ser. No. 60/919,430, filed on Mar. 22,2007, which is titled “Resistive Heater for In Situ Formation Heating,”and is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to the field of hydrocarbon recovery fromsubsurface formations. More specifically, the present invention relatesto the in situ recovery of hydrocarbon fluids from organic-rich rockformations including, for example, oil shale formations, coal formationsand tar sands. The present invention also relates to methods for heatinga subsurface formation using electrical energy.

2. Background of the Invention

Certain geological formations are known to contain an organic matterknown as “kerogen.” Kerogen is a solid, carbonaceous material. Whenkerogen is imbedded in rock formations, the mixture is referred to asoil shale. This is true whether or not the mineral is, in fact,technically shale, that is, a rock formed from compacted clay.

Kerogen is subject to decomposing upon exposure to heat over a period oftime. Upon heating, kerogen molecularly decomposes to produce oil, gas,and carbonaceous coke. Small amounts of water may also be generated. Theoil, gas and water fluids become mobile within the rock matrix, whilethe carbonaceous coke remains essentially immobile.

Oil shale formations are found in various areas world-wide, includingthe United States. Such formations are notably found in Wyoming,Colorado, and Utah. Oil shale formations tend to reside at relativelyshallow depths and are often characterized by limited permeability. Someconsider oil shale formations to be hydrocarbon deposits which have notyet experienced the years of heat and pressure thought to be required tocreate conventional oil and gas reserves.

The decomposition rate of kerogen to produce mobile hydrocarbons istemperature dependent. Temperatures generally in excess of 270° C. (518°F.) over the course of many months may be required for substantialconversion. At higher temperatures substantial conversion may occurwithin shorter times. When kerogen is heated to the necessarytemperature, chemical reactions break the larger molecules forming thesolid kerogen into smaller molecules of oil and gas. The thermalconversion process is referred to as pyrolysis or retorting.

Attempts have been made for many years to extract oil from oil shaleformations. Near-surface oil shales have been mined and retorted at thesurface for over a century. In 1862, James Young began processingScottish oil shales. The industry lasted for about 100 years. Commercialoil shale retorting through surface mining has been conducted in othercountries as well such as Australia, Brazil, China, Estonia, France,Russia, South Africa, Spain, and Sweden. However, the practice has beenmostly discontinued in recent years because it proved to be uneconomicalor because of environmental constraints on spent shale disposal. (See T.F. Yen, and G. V. Chilingarian, “Oil Shale,” Amsterdam, Elsevier, p.292, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein byreference.) Further, surface retorting requires mining of the oil shale,which limits application to very shallow formations.

In the United States, the existence of oil shale deposits innorthwestern Colorado has been known since the early 1900's. Whileresearch projects have been conducted in this area from time to time, noserious commercial development has been undertaken. Most research on oilshale production has been carried out in the latter half of the 1900's.The majority of this research was on shale oil geology, geochemistry,and retorting in surface facilities.

In 1947, U.S. Pat. No. 2,732,195 issued to Ljungstrom. That patent,entitled “Method of Treating Oil Shale and Recovery of Oil and OtherMineral Products Therefrom,” proposed the application of heat at hightemperatures to the oil shale formation in situ. The purpose of such insitu heating was to distill hydrocarbons and to produce them to thesurface. The '195 Ljungstrom patent is incorporated herein by reference.

Ljungstrom coined the phrase “heat supply channels” to describe boreholes drilled into the formation. The bore holes received an electricalheat conductor which transferred heat to the surrounding oil shale.Thus, the heat supply channels served as early heat injection wells. Theelectrical heating elements in the heat injection wells were placedwithin sand or cement or other heat-conductive material to permit theheat injection wells to transmit heat into the surrounding oil shalewhile preventing the inflow of fluid. According to Ljungstrom, the“aggregate” was heated to between 500° and 1,000° C. in someapplications.

Along with the heat injection wells, fluid producing wells were alsocompleted in near proximity to the heat injection wells. As kerogen waspyrolyzed upon heat conduction into the rock matrix, the resulting oiland gas would be recovered through the adjacent production wells.

Ljungstrom applied his approach of thermal conduction from heatedwellbores through the Swedish Shale Oil Company. A full scale plant wasdeveloped that operated from 1944 into the 1950's. (See G. Salamonsson,“The Ljungstrom In Situ Method for Shale-Oil Recovery,” 2^(nd) Oil Shaleand Cannel Coal Conference, v. 2, Glasgow, Scotland, Institute ofPetroleum, London, p. 260-280 (1951), the entire disclosure of which isincorporated herein by reference.)

Additional in situ methods have been proposed. These methods generallyinvolve the injection of heat and/or solvent into a subsurface oil shaleformation. Heat may be in the form of heated methane (see U.S. Pat. No.3,241,611 to J. L. Dougan), flue gas, or superheated steam (see U.S.Pat. No. 3,400,762 to D. W. Peacock). Heat may also be in the form ofelectric resistive heating, dielectric heating, radio frequency (RF)heating (U.S. Pat. No. 4,140,180, assigned to the ITT Research Institutein Chicago, Ill.) or oxidant injection to support in situ combustion. Insome instances, artificial permeability has been created in the matrixto aid the movement of pyrolyzed fluids. Permeability generation methodsinclude mining, rubblization, hydraulic fracturing (see U.S. Pat. No.3,468,376 to M. L. Slusser and U.S. Pat. No. 3,513,914 to J. V. Vogel),explosive fracturing (see U.S. Pat. No. 1,422,204 to W. W. Hoover, etal.), heat fracturing (see U.S. Pat. No. 3,284,281 to R. W. Thomas), andsteam fracturing (see U.S. Pat. No. 2,952,450 to H. Purre).

In 1989, U.S. Pat. No. 4,886,118 issued to Shell Oil Company, the entiredisclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. That patent,entitled “Conductively Heating a Subterranean Oil Shale to CreatePermeability and Subsequently Produce Oil,” declared that “[c]ontrary tothe implications of . . . prior teachings and beliefs . . . thepresently described conductive heating process is economically feasiblefor use even in a substantially impermeable subterranean oil shale.”(col. 6, ln. 50-54). Despite this declaration, it is noted that few, ifany, commercial in situ shale oil operations have occurred other thanLjungstrom's enterprise. The '118 patent proposed controlling the rateof heat conduction within the rock surrounding each heat injection wellto provide a uniform heat front.

Additional history behind oil shale retorting and shale oil recovery canbe found in co-owned patent publication WO 2005/010320 entitled “Methodsof Treating a Subterranean Formation to Convert Organic Matter intoProducible Hydrocarbons,” and in patent publication WO 2005/045192entitled “Hydrocarbon Recovery from Impermeable Oil Shales.” TheBackground and technical disclosures of these two patent publicationsare incorporated herein by reference.

A need exists for improved processes for the production of shale oil. Inaddition, a need exists for improved methods for heating a subsurfaceformation and pyrolyzing solid hydrocarbons. Still further, a needexists for methods addressing the cost-effective installation of robustsubsurface heater wells. A need also exists for improved subsurfaceheater well arrangements that use granular conductive material. Granularmaterials placed even in oddly shaped subsurface regions formconnections with surrounding materials.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one embodiment, a method for heating a subsurface formation using anelectrical resistance heater is provided. The method may includeproviding an electrically conductive first member in a wellbore locatedat least partially within a subsurface formation, and providing anelectrically conductive second member in the wellbore. The method mayfurther include providing an electrically conductive granular materialin the wellbore, where the granular material is positioned to provideelectrical communication between the conductive first member and theconductive second member, thereby forming a granular connection. Themethod further includes passing an electrical current through the firstmember, the granular material and the second member, thereby generatingheat, with the generated heat produced primarily through electricalresistive heating of the granular material over the life of the heatingoperation. The heat is then transferred, by thermal conduction into thesubsurface formation so as to cause solid hydrocarbons in the formationto be pyrolyzed into hydrocarbon fluids.

Another embodiment of the invention includes a method for heating asubsurface formation. The method may include forming a wellbore to thesubsurface formation, and filling at least a part of the wellbore with aconductive granular material to act as a resistive heating element. Themethod may further include passing electricity through the granularmaterial in order to generate resistive heat within the granularmaterial, and continuing to pass electricity through the granularmaterial to generate additional resistive heat in order to cause in situpyrolysis of at least some solid hydrocarbons. Pyrolysis of the solidhydrocarbons forms hydrocarbon fluids. Heat again is generated primarilyfrom the granular material over the life of the heating operation.

Another embodiment of the invention includes a method for heating asubsurface formation using an electrically resistive heater. The methodincludes forming a wellbore below an earth surface and into thesubsurface formation. The method may further include running a string ofcasing into the wellbore, and also running an elongated, electricallyconductive conductor element within the string of casing. The method mayfurther include injecting electrically conductive granular materialbetween the conductor element and the surrounding string of casingproximate a bottom of the wellbore. A voltage is applied across thestring of casing and the conductor element in order to resistively heatthe conductive granular material. This serves to heat the surroundingsubsurface formation.

Another embodiment of the invention includes a method for heating asubsurface formation. The method may include passing electricity througha conductive granular material to generate resistive heat within thegranular material, where the granular material is disposed between andwithin at least two adjacent wellbores completed at least partiallywithin the subsurface formation. An example is through interconnectingfractures. The granular material may provide electrical communicationbetween the wellbores, where a majority of the resistive heat isgenerated within the wellbores as opposed to the granular material overthe life of the heating operation. The method may further includetransferring, by thermal conduction, at least a portion of the resistiveheat into the subsurface formation in order to cause in situ pyrolysisof at least some solid formation hydrocarbons to form hydrocarbonfluids.

Also provided herein is a resistive heater for heating a subsurfaceformation. The resistive heater may include a wellbore formed from anearth surface and into the subsurface formation, a string of casing inthe wellbore, and an elongated, electrically conductive conductorelement within the string of casing. The resistive heater furtherincludes a conductive granular material disposed within the string ofcasing at a bottom of the wellbore and along the depth of the subsurfaceformation. The granular material thereby provides an electricalconnection between the string of casing and the conductor element. Thegranular material may have an electrical resistance that is higher thanthe electrical resistance of the string of casing and the conductorelement. In this way resistive heat is generated primarily within thegranular material when a current is passed through the string of casing,the granular material and the conductor element.

Another embodiment of the invention includes a method for heating asubsurface formation. The method may include providing a first wellboreto the subsurface formation. A conductive member is then run into thefirst wellbore. The method may further include providing a secondwellbore, with the second wellbore having a bottom portion thatintersects the first wellbore within the subsurface formation. Themethod may further include running a conductive member into the secondwellbore. The method may further include filling at least a part of eachof the first and second wellbores with a conductive granular material.The granular materials provides an electrical connection between theconductive member in the first wellbore and the conductive member in thesecond wellbore. The method may further include passing an electricalcurrent through the conductive member in the first wellbore, thegranular material, and the conductive member in the second wellbore inorder to generate heat via electrical resistance primarily within thegranular material over the life of the heating operation. The granularmaterial thus acts as a resistive heating element for heating thesurrounding formation.

Another embodiment of the invention includes a method of producing ahydrocarbon fluid. The method may include heating an organic-rich rockformation in situ using an electrical resistance heater, and producing ahydrocarbon fluid from the organic-rich rock formation. In thisinstance, the hydrocarbon fluid is at least partially generated as aresult of pyrolysis of formation hydrocarbons located in theorganic-rich rock formation. The heating is performed by using anelectrical resistance heater formed by providing an electricallyconductive first member in a wellbore located at least partially withina subsurface formation, providing an electrically conductive secondmember in the wellbore, and providing an electrically conductivegranular material in the wellbore that is positioned to provideelectrical communication between the first member and the second member.The first member has a lower end terminating at a first depth locatedwithin the subsurface formation, and is insulated above the first depth.Similarly, the second member has a lower end terminating at a seconddepth located within the subsurface formation, and is insulated abovethe second depth. An electrical current is passed through the firstmember, the granular material and the second member, thereby generatingheat through electrical resistive heating of the granular material. Heatis transferred by thermal conduction from the granular material and intothe subsurface formation.

Another embodiment of the invention includes a method of producing ahydrocarbon fluid. The method may include heating an organic-rich rockformation in situ using an electrical resistance heater, and producing ahydrocarbon fluid from the organic-rich rock formation The hydrocarbonfluid is at least partially generated as a result of pyrolysis offormation hydrocarbons located in the organic-rich rock formation. Themethod may include using an electrical resistance heater that is formedby passing electricity through a conductive granular material togenerate resistive heat within the granular material, where the granularmaterial is disposed between and within at least two adjacent wellborescompleted at least partially within the subsurface formation. Thegranular material may provide electrical communication between thewellbores, where a majority of the resistive heat is generated withinthe wellbores. The granular material has a bulk resistance that isgreater than a resistance of the wellbores. The electrical resistanceheater may further include transferring, by thermal conduction, at leasta portion of the resistive heat into the subsurface formation in orderto cause in situ pyrolysis of at least some solid formation hydrocarbonsto form the hydrocarbon fluid.

Another embodiment of the invention includes a method for heating asubsurface formation using electrically resistive heat. The method mayinclude providing a first wellbore located at least partially within asubsurface formation, the first wellbore having an electricallyconductive first member, an electrically conductive second member, andan electrically conductive first granular material in the firstwellbore, where the first granular material is positioned to provideelectrical communication between the first member and the second member.The method may further include providing a second wellbore located atleast partially within the subsurface formation, the second wellborehaving an electrically conductive third member, an electricallyconductive fourth member, and an electrically conductive second granularmaterial in the second wellbore, where the second granular material ispositioned to provide electrical communication between the third memberand the fourth member. The method may further include passing a firstelectrical current through the first member, the first granular materialand the second member, thereby generating first heat, with the generatedfirst heat produced primarily through electrical resistive heating ofthe first granular materia. The method may further include passing asecond electrical current through the third member, the second granularmaterial and the fourth member, thereby generating second heat, with thegenerated second heat produced primarily through electrical resistiveheating of the second granular material. The method may also includeheating formation hydrocarbons located substantially equidistant fromthe first wellbore and the second wellbore primarily with the generatedfirst heat, second heat or both.

Another embodiment of the invention includes a method for heating asubsurface formation. The method may include forming a wellbore to thesubsurface formation, placing a string of electrically conductive casingproximate the bottom of the wellbore, running an elongated electricallyconductive element into the wellbore and within the string of conductivecasing, thereby forming an annular region between the string ofconductive casing and the elongated conductive element, filling at leasta part of the annular region with a conductive granular material to actas a resistive heating element, radially passing an electrical currentthrough the string of conductive casing, through the granular material,and through the elongated conductive element within the casing in orderto generate resistive heat within the granular material and continuingto radially pass electricity through the granular material to generateadditional resistive heat in order to cause in situ pyrolysis of atleast some formation hydrocarbons, thereby forming hydrocarbon fluids.

Another embodiment of the invention includes a method of producing ahydrocarbon fluid. The method may include heating an organic-rich rockformation in situ primarily using heat generated by electrical resistiveheating of a granular material included in an electrical resistanceheater, thereby producing a heated portion of the organic-rich rockformation, controlling the rate of heat generation such that theelectrical conductivity of a majority of the heated portion of theorganic-rich rock formation does not increase substantially andproducing a hydrocarbon fluid from the organic-rich rock formation, thehydrocarbon fluid having been generated as a result of heating andpyrolysis of formation hydrocarbons located in the heated portion of theorganic-rich rock formation, with the heating and pyrolysis resultingprimarily from the heat generated by electrical resistive heating of thegranular material. The electrical resistance heater may be formed bypassing electricity through a conductive granular material to generateresistive heat within the granular material, the granular material beingdisposed between and within at least two adjacent wellbores completed atleast partially within the organic-rich rock formation, the granularmaterial providing electrical communication between the wellbores, wherea majority of the resistive heat is generated within the granularmaterial and transferring, by thermal conduction, at least a portion ofthe resistive heat into the organic-rich rock formation in order tocause in situ pyrolysis of the formation hydrocarbons located in theheated portion of the organic-rich rock formation to form thehydrocarbon fluid.

Another embodiment of the invention includes a method of producing ahydrocarbon fluid. The method may include heating an organic-rich rockformation in situ primarily using heat generated by electrical resistiveheating of a granular material included in an electrical resistanceheater, thereby producing a heated portion of the organic-rich rockformation, controlling the rate of heat generation such that theelectrical conductivity of a majority of the heated portion of theorganic-rich rock formation does not increase substantially andproducing a hydrocarbon fluid from the organic-rich rock formation, thehydrocarbon fluid having been at least partially generated as a resultof heating and pyrolysis of formation hydrocarbons located in the heatedportion of the organic-rich rock formation, with the heating andpyrolysis resulting primarily from the heat generated by electricalresistive heating of the granular material. The electrical resistanceheater may be formed by providing a wellbore located at least partiallywithin the organic-rich rock, the wellbore having an electricallyconductive first member, an electrically conductive second member, andan electrically conductive granular material in the wellbore, where thegranular material is positioned to provide electrical communicationbetween the first member and the second member; and passing anelectrical current through the first member, the granular material andthe second member, thereby generating heat, with the generated heatproduced primarily through electrical resistive heating of the granularmaterial.

Another embodiment of the invention includes a method for heating anorganic-rich rock formation. The method may include providing aplurality of heater wells, each of the plurality of heater wellscomprising: a first wellbore located at least partially within theorganic-rich rock formation; an electrically conductive first memberlocated in the first wellbore; a second wellbore, the second wellborehaving a bottom portion that intersects the first wellbore within theorganic-rich rock formation; an electrically conductive second memberlocated in the second wellbore; and an electrically conductive granularmaterial filling at least a part of each of the first and secondwellbores so as to provide an electrical connection between the firstmember in the first wellbore and the second member in the secondwellbore, the granular material thereby forming a granular mass andacting as a resistive heating element, the first member, granularmaterial and second member thereby forming an electrical flow path. Themethod may further include passing electrical current through eachelectrical flow path in order to generate heat primarily via electricalresistive heating within the granular material, transferring, by thermalconduction, at least a portion of the generated heat into theorganic-rich rock formation, the heated volume being defined at it'sextremities by the plurality of granular masses and heating a majorityof the formation hydrocarbons located in the heated volume of theorganic-rich rock formation primarily with the generated heat, therebycausing the formation hydrocarbons to be substantially pyrolyzed to formhydrocarbon fluids.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

So that the present invention can be better understood, certaindrawings, charts, graphs and flow charts are appended hereto. It is tobe noted, however, that the drawings illustrate only selectedembodiments of the inventions and are therefore not to be consideredlimiting of scope, for the inventions may admit to other equallyeffective embodiments and applications.

FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional isomeric view of an illustrative subsurfacearea. The subsurface area includes an organic-rich rock matrix thatdefines a subsurface formation.

FIG. 2 is a flow chart demonstrating a general method of in situ thermalrecovery of oil and gas from an organic-rich rock formation, in oneembodiment.

FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional side view of an illustrative oil shaleformation that is within or connected to groundwater aquifers and aformation leaching operation.

FIG. 4 is a plan view of an illustrative heater well pattern, aroundproduction wells. Two layers of heater wells are shown.

FIG. 5 is a bar chart comparing one ton of Green River oil shale beforeand after a simulated in situ, retorting process.

FIG. 6 is a process flow diagram of exemplary surface processingfacilities for a subsurface formation development.

FIG. 7 is a graph of the weight percent of each carbon number pseudocomponent occurring from C6 to C38 for laboratory experiments conductedat three different stress levels.

FIG. 8 is a graph of the weight percent ratios of each carbon numberpseudo component occurring from C6 to C38 as compared to the C20 pseudocomponent for laboratory experiments conducted at three different stresslevels.

FIG. 9 is a graph of the weight percent ratios of each carbon numberpseudo component occurring from C6 to C38 as compared to the C25 pseudocomponent for laboratory experiments conducted at three different stresslevels.

FIG. 10 is a graph of the weight percent ratios of each carbon numberpseudo component occurring from C6 to C38 as compared to the C29 pseudocomponent for laboratory experiments conducted at three different stresslevels.

FIG. 11 is a graph of the weight percent of normal alkane hydrocarboncompounds occurring from normal-C6 to normal-C38 for laboratoryexperiments conducted at three different stress levels.

FIG. 12 is a graph of the weight percent of normal alkane hydrocarboncompounds occurring from normal-C6 to normal-C38 as compared to thenormal-C20 hydrocarbon compound for laboratory experiments conducted atthree different stress levels.

FIG. 13 is a graph of the weight percent of normal alkane hydrocarboncompounds occurring from normal-C6 to normal-C38 as compared to thenormal-C25 hydrocarbon compound for laboratory experiments conducted atthree different stress levels.

FIG. 14 is a graph of the weight percent of normal alkane hydrocarboncompounds occurring from normal-C6 to normal-C38 as compared to thenormal-C29 hydrocarbon compound for laboratory experiments conducted atthree different stress levels.

FIG. 15 is a graph of the weight ratio of normal alkane hydrocarboncompounds to pseudo components for each carbon number from C6 to C38 forlaboratory experiments conducted at three different stress levels.

FIG. 16 is a bar graph showing the concentration, in molar percentage,of the hydrocarbon species present in the gas samples taken fromduplicate laboratory experiments conducted at three different stresslevels.

FIG. 17 is an exemplary view of the gold tube apparatus used in theunstressed Parr heating test described below in Example 1.

FIG. 18 is a cross-sectional view of the Parr vessel used in Examples1-5, described below.

FIG. 19 is gas chromatogram of gas sampled from Example 1.

FIG. 20 is a whole oil gas chromatogram of liquid sampled from Example1.

FIG. 21 is an exemplary view of a Berea cylinder, Berea plugs, and anoil shale core specimen as used in Examples 2-5.

FIG. 22 is an exemplary view of the mini load frame and sample assemblyused in Examples 2-5.

FIG. 23 is gas chromatogram of gas sampled from Example 2.

FIG. 24 is gas chromatogram of gas sampled from Example 3.

FIG. 25 is a whole oil gas chromatogram of liquid sampled from Example3.

FIG. 26 is gas chromatogram of gas sampled from Example 4.

FIG. 27 is a whole oil gas chromatogram of liquid sampled from Example4.

FIG. 28 is gas chromatogram of gas sampled from Example 5.

FIG. 29 is a flow chart showing steps that may be performed inconnection with one embodiment of the present inventions for heating asubsurface formation.

FIG. 30A is a cross-sectional view of a heater well, in one embodiment.Here, a wellbore is completed through a targeted subsurface formation.The wellbore is completed as an open hole at the level of the formation.A single conductive rod is located within a string of well casing in theheater well arrangement. Electricity flows substantially longitudinallythrough the granular material.

FIG. 30B provides a graph charting in-place resistivity of bulk granularmaterial versus heated length required. The criteria is for the bulkgranular material to suffer 2,000 Watts per meter of energy dissipationfor three voltages: 500V, 1000V, and 2000V. The calculations assume thatthe electricity flows longitudinally through the granular material aswould be provided in the heater well of FIG. 30A. The calculationsassume that the bulk material is in a tubular form.

FIG. 31A is a cross-sectional view of a heater well, in an alternateembodiment where the electricity flows substantially radially throughthe granular material. Here, a wellbore is completed through a targetedsubsurface formation. The wellbore is cased down through the formation.

FIG. 31B is another graph charting the targeted in-place resistance of agranular heating element versus its length. Here, the electricity flowsradially through the granular material as would be provided in theheater well of FIG. 30B. The calculations assume that the bulk materialis in a tubular form.

FIG. 32 is a cross-sectional view of a heater well, in an alternateembodiment. Here, a wellbore is completed through a targeted subsurfaceformation. The wellbore is completed as an open hole at the level of theformation. Two separate rods are used as electrically conductivemembers.

FIG. 33 is a cross-sectional view of a heater well, in an alternateembodiment. Here, a wellbore is completed through a targeted subsurfaceformation. The wellbore is cased down through the formation.

FIG. 34A is a cross-sectional view of a heater well, in yet an alternateembodiment. Here, three wellbores are completed through a targetedsubsurface formation. The wellbores are connected using granularmaterial.

FIG. 34B is another cross-sectional view of a heater well. In thisembodiment, two wellbores are completed through a targeted subsurfaceformation. The wellbores are again connected using granular material.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN EMBODIMENTS Definitions

As used herein, the term “hydrocarbon(s)” refers to organic materialwith molecular structures containing carbon bonded to hydrogen.Hydrocarbons may also include other elements, such as, but not limitedto, halogens, metallic elements, nitrogen, oxygen, and/or sulfur.

As used herein, the term “hydrocarbon fluids” refers to a hydrocarbon ormixtures of hydrocarbons that are gases or liquids. For example,hydrocarbon fluids may include a hydrocarbon or mixtures of hydrocarbonsthat are gases or liquids at formation conditions, at processingconditions or at ambient conditions (15° C. and 1 atm pressure).Hydrocarbon fluids may include, for example, oil, natural gas, coal bedmethane, shale oil, pyrolysis oil, pyrolysis gas, a pyrolysis product ofcoal, and other hydrocarbons that are in a gaseous or liquid state.

As used herein, the terms “produced fluids” and “production fluids”refer to liquids and/or gases removed from a subsurface formation,including, for example, an organic-rich rock formation. Produced fluidsmay include both hydrocarbon fluids and non-hydrocarbon fluids.Production fluids may include, but are not limited to, pyrolyzed shaleoil, synthesis gas, a pyrolysis product of coal, carbon dioxide,hydrogen sulfide and water (including steam). Produced fluids mayinclude both hydrocarbon fluids and non-hydrocarbon fluids.

As used herein, the term “condensable hydrocarbons” means thosehydrocarbons that condense at 25° C. and one atmosphere absolutepressure. Condensable hydrocarbons may include a mixture of hydrocarbonshaving carbon numbers greater than 4.

As used herein, the term “non-condensable hydrocarbons” means thosehydrocarbons that do not condense at 25° C. and one atmosphere absolutepressure. Non-condensable hydrocarbons may include hydrocarbons havingcarbon numbers less than 5.

As used herein, the term “heavy hydrocarbons” refers to hydrocarbonfluids that are highly viscous at ambient conditions (15° C. and 1 atmpressure). Heavy hydrocarbons may include highly viscous hydrocarbonfluids such as heavy oil, tar, and/or asphalt. Heavy hydrocarbons mayinclude carbon and hydrogen, as well as smaller concentrations ofsulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. Additional elements may also be present inheavy hydrocarbons in trace amounts. Heavy hydrocarbons may beclassified by API gravity. Heavy hydrocarbons generally have an APIgravity below about 20 degrees. Heavy oil, for example, generally has anAPI gravity of about 10-20 degrees, whereas tar generally has an APIgravity below about 10 degrees. The viscosity of heavy hydrocarbons isgenerally greater than about 100 centipoise at 15° C.

As used herein, the term “solid hydrocarbons” refers to any hydrocarbonmaterial that is found naturally in substantially solid form atformation conditions. Non-limiting examples include kerogen, coal,shungites, asphaltites, and natural mineral waxes.

As used herein, the term “formation hydrocarbons” refers to both heavyhydrocarbons and solid hydrocarbons that are contained in anorganic-rich rock formation. Formation hydrocarbons may be, but are notlimited to, kerogen, oil shale, coal, bitumen, tar, natural mineralwaxes, and asphaltites.

As used herein, the term “tar” refers to a viscous hydrocarbon thatgenerally has a viscosity greater than about 10,000 centipoise at 15° C.The specific gravity of tar generally is greater than 1.000. Tar mayhave an API gravity less than 10 degrees.

As used herein, the term “kerogen” refers to a solid, insolublehydrocarbon that principally contains carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,oxygen, and sulfur. Oil shale contains kerogen.

As used herein, the term “bitumen” refers to a non-crystalline solid orviscous hydrocarbon material that is substantially soluble in carbondisulfide.

As used herein, the term “oil” refers to a hydrocarbon fluid containinga mixture of condensable hydrocarbons.

As used herein, the term “subsurface” refers to geologic strataoccurring below the earth's surface.

As used herein, the term “hydrocarbon-rich formation” refers to anyformation that contains more than trace amounts of hydrocarbons. Forexample, a hydrocarbon-rich formation may include portions that containhydrocarbons at a level of greater than 5 volume percent. Thehydrocarbons located in a hydrocarbon-rich formation may include, forexample, oil, natural gas, heavy hydrocarbons, and solid hydrocarbons.

As used herein, the term “organic-rich rock” refers to any rock matrixholding solid hydrocarbons and/or heavy hydrocarbons. Rock matrices mayinclude, but are not limited to, sedimentary rocks, shales, siltstones,sands, silicilytes, carbonates, and diatomites.

As used herein, the term “formation” refers to any finite subsurfaceregion. The formation may contain one or more hydrocarbon-containinglayers, one or more non-hydrocarbon containing layers, an overburden,and/or an underburden of any subsurface geologic formation. An“overburden” and/or an “underburden” is geological material above orbelow the formation of interest. An overburden or underburden mayinclude one or more different types of substantially impermeablematerials. For example, overburden and/or underburden may include rock,shale, mudstone, or wet/tight carbonate (i.e., an impermeable carbonatewithout hydrocarbons). An overburden and/or an underburden may include ahydrocarbon-containing layer that is relatively impermeable. In somecases, the overburden and/or underburden may be permeable.

As used herein, the term “organic-rich rock formation” refers to anyformation containing organic-rich rock. Organic-rich rock formationsinclude, for example, oil shale formations, coal formations, and tarsands formations.

As used herein, the term “pyrolysis” refers to the breaking of chemicalbonds through the application of heat. For example, pyrolysis mayinclude transforming a compound into one or more other substances byheat alone or by heat in combination with an oxidant. Pyrolysis mayinclude modifying the nature of the compound by addition of hydrogenatoms which may be obtained from molecular hydrogen, water, carbondioxide, or carbon monoxide. Heat may be transferred to a section of theformation to cause pyrolysis.

As used herein, the term “water-soluble minerals” refers to mineralsthat are soluble in water. Water-soluble minerals include, for example,nahcolite (sodium bicarbonate), soda ash (sodium carbonate), dawsonite(NaAl(CO₃)(OH)₂), or combinations thereof. Substantial solubility mayrequire heated water and/or a non-neutral pH solution.

As used herein, the term “formation water-soluble minerals” refers towater-soluble minerals that are found naturally in a formation.

As used herein, the term “migratory contaminant species” refers tospecies that are soluble or moveable in water or an aqueous fluid, andare considered to be potentially harmful or of concern to human healthor the environment. Migratory contaminant species may include inorganicand organic contaminants. Organic contaminants may include saturatedhydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, and oxygenated hydrocarbons.Inorganic contaminants may include metal contaminants, and ioniccontaminants of various types that may significantly alter pH or theformation fluid chemistry. Aromatic hydrocarbons may include, forexample, benzene, toluene, xylene, ethylbenzene, and tri-methylbenzene,and various types of polyaromatic hydrocarbons such as anthracenes,naphthalenes, chrysenes and pyrenes. Oxygenated hydrocarbons mayinclude, for example, alcohols, ketones, phenols, and organic acids suchas carboxylic acid. Metal contaminants may include, for example,arsenic, boron, chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, mercury, selenium, lead,vanadium, nickel or zinc. Ionic contaminants include, for example,sulfides, sulfates, chlorides, fluorides, ammonia, nitrates, calcium,iron, magnesium, potassium, lithium, boron, and strontium.

As used herein, the term “sequestration” refers to the storing of afluid that is a by-product of a process rather than discharging thefluid to the atmosphere or open environment.

As used herein, the term “subsidence” refers to a downward movement of asurface relative to an initial elevation of the surface.

As used herein, the term “thickness” of a layer refers to the distancebetween the upper and lower boundaries of a cross section of a layer,wherein the distance is measured normal to the average tilt of the crosssection.

As used herein, the term “thermal fracture” refers to fractures createdin a formation caused directly or indirectly by expansion or contractionof a portion of the formation and/or fluids within the formation, whichin turn is caused by increasing/decreasing the temperature of theformation and/or fluids within the formation, and/or byincreasing/decreasing a pressure of fluids within the formation due toheating. Thermal fractures may propagate into or form in neighboringregions significantly cooler than the heated zone.

As used herein, the term “hydraulic fracture” refers to a fracture atleast partially propagated into a formation, wherein the fracture iscreated through injection of pressurized fluids into the formation. Thefracture may be artificially held open by injection of a proppantmaterial. Hydraulic fractures may be substantially horizontal inorientation, substantially vertical in orientation, or oriented alongany other plane.

As used herein, the term “wellbore” refers to a hole in the subsurfacemade by drilling or insertion of a conduit into the subsurface. Awellbore may have a substantially circular cross section, or othercross-sectional shapes (e.g., circles, ovals, squares, rectangles,triangles, slits, or other regular or irregular shapes). As used herein,the term “well”, when referring to an opening in the formation, may beused interchangeably with the term “wellbore.”

As used herein, the term “bulk resistance” means the electricalresistance experienced by an electrical current in a mass of granularmaterial having surface-to-surface contact. As used herein, the term“bulk resistivity” means the electrical resistivity of a mass ofgranular material having surface-to-surface contact as calculated usinglength and cross-sectional dimensions defined by the overall size of themass.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS

The inventions described herein are in connection with certain specificembodiments. However, to the extent that the following detaileddescription is specific to a particular embodiment or a particular use,such is intended to be illustrative only and is not to be construed aslimiting the scope of the invention.

As discussed herein, some embodiments of the invention include or haveapplication related to an in situ method of recovering naturalresources. The natural resources may be recovered from an organic-richrock formation, including, for example, an oil shale formation. Theorganic-rich rock formation may include formation hydrocarbons,including, for example, kerogen, coal, and heavy hydrocarbons. In someembodiments of the invention the natural resources may includehydrocarbon fluids, including, for example, products of the pyrolysis offormation hydrocarbons such as shale oil. In some embodiments of theinvention the natural resources may also include water-soluble minerals,including, for example, nahcolite (sodium bicarbonate, or 2NaHCO₃), sodaash (sodium carbonate, or Na₂CO₃) and dawsonite (NaAl(CO₃)(OH)₂).

FIG. 1 presents a perspective view of an illustrative oil shaledevelopment area 10. A surface 12 of the development area 10 isindicated. Below the surface is an organic-rich rock formation 16. Theillustrative subsurface formation 16 contains formation hydrocarbons(such as, for example, kerogen) and possibly valuable water-solubleminerals (such as, for example, nahcolite). It is understood that therepresentative formation 16 may be any organic-rich rock formation,including a rock matrix containing coal or tar sands, for example. Inaddition, the rock matrix making up the formation 16 may be permeable,semi-permeable or non-permeable. The present inventions are particularlyadvantageous in oil shale development areas initially having verylimited or effectively no fluid permeability.

In order to access formation 16 and recover natural resources therefrom,a plurality of wellbores is formed. Wellbores are shown at 14 in FIG. 1.The representative wellbores 14 are essentially vertical in orientationrelative to the surface 12. However, it is understood that some or allof the wellbores 14 could deviate into an obtuse or even horizontalorientation. In the arrangement of FIG. 1, each of the wellbores 14 iscompleted in the oil shale formation 16. The completions may be eitheropen or cased hole. The well completions may also include propped orunpropped hydraulic fractures emanating therefrom.

In the view of FIG. 1, only seven wellbores 14 are shown. However, it isunderstood that in an oil shale development project, numerous additionalwellbores 14 will most likely be drilled. The wellbores 14 may belocated in relatively close proximity, being from 10 feet to up to 300feet in separation. In some embodiments, a well spacing of 15 to 25 feetis provided. Typically, the wellbores 14 are also completed at shallowdepths, being from 200 to 5,000 feet at total depth. In some embodimentsthe oil shale formation targeted for in situ retorting is at a depthgreater than 200 feet below the surface or alternatively 400 feet belowthe surface. Alternatively, conversion and production occur at depthsbetween 500 and 2,500 feet.

The wellbores 14 will be selected for certain functions and may bedesignated as heat injection wells, water injection wells, oilproduction wells and/or water-soluble mineral solution production wells.In one aspect, the wellbores 14 are dimensioned to serve two, three, orall four of these purposes. Suitable tools and equipment may besequentially run into and removed from the wellbores 14 to serve thevarious purposes.

A fluid processing facility 17 is also shown schematically. The fluidprocessing facility 17 is equipped to receive fluids produced from theorganic-rich rock formation 16 through one or more pipelines or flowlines 18. The fluid processing facility 17 may include equipmentsuitable for receiving and separating oil, gas, and water produced fromthe heated formation. The fluid processing facility 17 may furtherinclude equipment for separating out dissolved water-soluble mineralsand/or migratory contaminant species, including, for example, dissolvedorganic contaminants, metal contaminants, or ionic contaminants in theproduced water recovered from the organic-rich rock formation 16. Thecontaminants may include, for example, aromatic hydrocarbons such asbenzene, toluene, xylene, and tri-methylbenzene. The contaminants mayalso include polyaromatic hydrocarbons such as anthracene, naphthalene,chrysene and pyrene. Metal contaminants may include species containingarsenic, boron, chromium, mercury, selenium, lead, vanadium, nickel,cobalt, molybdenum, or zinc. Ionic contaminant species may include, forexample, sulfates, chlorides, fluorides, lithium, potassium, aluminum,ammonia, and nitrates.

In order to recover oil, gas, and sodium (or other) water-solubleminerals, a series of steps may be undertaken. FIG. 2 presents a flowchart demonstrating a method of in situ thermal recovery of oil and gasfrom an organic-rich rock formation 100, in one embodiment. It isunderstood that the order of some of the steps from FIG. 2 may bechanged, and that the sequence of steps is merely for illustration.

First, the oil shale (or other organic-rich rock) formation 16 isidentified within the development area 10. This step is shown in box110. Optionally, the oil shale formation may contain nahcolite or othersodium minerals. The targeted development area within the oil shaleformation may be identified by measuring or modeling the depth,thickness and organic richness of the oil shale as well as evaluatingthe position of the organic-rich rock formation relative to other rocktypes, structural features (e.g. faults, anticlines or synclines), orhydrogeological units (i.e. aquifers). This is accomplished by creatingand interpreting maps and/or models of depth, thickness, organicrichness and other data from available tests and sources. This mayinvolve performing geological surface surveys, studying outcrops,performing seismic surveys, and/or drilling boreholes to obtain coresamples from subsurface rock. Rock samples may be analyzed to assesskerogen content and hydrocarbon fluid generating capability.

The kerogen content of the organic-rich rock formation may beascertained from outcrop or core samples using a variety of data. Suchdata may include organic carbon content, hydrogen index, and modifiedFischer assay analyses. Subsurface permeability may also be assessed viarock samples, outcrops, or studies of ground water flow. Furthermore theconnectivity of the development area to ground water sources may beassessed.

Next, a plurality of wellbores 14 is formed across the targeteddevelopment area 10. This step is shown schematically in box 115. Thepurposes of the wellbores 14 are set forth above and need not berepeated. However, it is noted that for purposes of the wellboreformation step of box 115, only a portion of the wells need be completedinitially. For instance, at the beginning of the project heat injectionwells are needed, while a majority of the hydrocarbon production wellsare not yet needed. Production wells may be brought in once conversionbegins, such as after 4 to 12 months of heating.

It is understood that petroleum engineers will develop a strategy forthe best depth and arrangement for the wellbores 14, depending uponanticipated reservoir characteristics, economic constraints, and workscheduling constraints. In addition, engineering staff will determinewhat wellbores 14 shall be used for initial formation 16 heating. Thisselection step is represented by box 120.

Concerning heat injection wells, there are various methods for applyingheat to the organic-rich rock formation 16. The present methods are notlimited to the heating technique employed unless specifically so statedin the claims. The heating step is represented generally by box 130.Preferably, for in situ processes the heating of a production zone takesplace over a period of months, or even four or more years.

The formation 16 is heated to a temperature sufficient to pyrolyze atleast a portion of the oil shale in order to convert the kerogen tohydrocarbon fluids. The bulk of the target zone of the formation may beheated to between 270° C. to 800° C. Alternatively, the targeted volumeof the organic-rich formation is heated to at least 350° C. to createproduction fluids. The conversion step is represented in FIG. 2 by box135. The resulting liquids and hydrocarbon gases may be refined intoproducts which resemble common commercial petroleum products. Suchliquid products include transportation fuels such as diesel, jet fueland naphtha. Generated gases include light alkanes, light alkenes, H₂,CO₂, CO, and NH₃.

Conversion of the oil shale will create permeability in the oil shalesection in rocks that were originally impermeable. Preferably, theheating and conversion processes of boxes 130 and 135, occur over alengthy period of time. In one aspect, the heating period is from threemonths to four or more years. Also as an optional part of box 135, theformation 16 may be heated to a temperature sufficient to convert atleast a portion of nahcolite, if present, to soda ash. Heat applied tomature the oil shale and recover oil and gas will also convert nahcoliteto sodium carbonate (soda ash), a related sodium mineral. The process ofconverting nahcolite (sodium bicarbonate) to soda ash (sodium carbonate)is described herein.

In connection with the heating step 130, the rock formation 16 mayoptionally be fractured to aid heat transfer or later hydrocarbon fluidproduction. The optional fracturing step is shown in box 125. Fracturingmay be accomplished by creating thermal fractures within the formationthrough application of heat. By heating the organic-rich rock andtransforming the kerogen to oil and gas, the permeability of portions ofthe formation are increased via thermal fracture formation andsubsequent production of a portion of the hydrocarbon fluids generatedfrom the kerogen. Alternatively, a process known as hydraulic fracturingmay be used. Hydraulic fracturing is a process known in the art of oiland gas recovery where a fracture fluid is pressurized within thewellbore above the fracture pressure of the formation, thus developingfracture planes within the formation to relieve the pressure generatedwithin the wellbore. Hydraulic fractures may be used to createadditional permeability in portions of the formation and/or be used toprovide a planar source for heating. The WO 2005/010320 patentpublication incorporated above describes one use of hydraulicfracturing.

As part of the hydrocarbon fluid production process 100, certain wells14 may be designated as oil and gas production wells. This step isdepicted by box 140. Oil and gas production might not be initiated untilit is determined that the kerogen has been sufficiently retorted toallow maximum recovery of oil and gas from the formation 16. In someinstances, dedicated production wells are not drilled until after heatinjection wells (box 130) have been in operation for a period of severalweeks or months. Thus, box 140 may include the formation of additionalwellbores 14. In other instances, selected heater wells are converted toproduction wells.

After certain wellbores 14 have been designated as oil and gasproduction wells, oil and/or gas is produced from the wellbores 14. Theoil and/or gas production process is shown at box 145. At this stage(box 145), any water-soluble minerals, such as nahcolite and convertedsoda ash may remain substantially trapped in the rock formation 16 asfinely disseminated crystals or nodules within the oil shale beds, andare not produced. However, some nahcolite and/or soda ash may bedissolved in the water created during heat conversion (box 135) withinthe formation.

Box 150 presents an optional next step in the oil and gas recoverymethod 100. Here, certain wellbores 14 are designated as water oraqueous fluid injection wells. Aqueous fluids are solutions of waterwith other species. The water may constitute “brine,” and may includedissolved inorganic salts of chloride, sulfates and carbonates of GroupI and II elements of The Periodic Table of Elements. Organic salts canalso be present in the aqueous fluid. The water may alternatively befresh water containing other species. The other species may be presentto alter the pH. Alternatively, the other species may reflect theavailability of brackish water not saturated in the species wished to beleached from the subsurface. Preferably, the water injection wells areselected from some or all of the wellbores used for heat injection orfor oil and/or gas production. However, the scope of the step of box 150may include the drilling of yet additional wellbores 14 for use asdedicated water injection wells. In this respect, it may be desirable tocomplete water injection wells along a periphery of the development area10 in order to create a boundary of high pressure.

Next, optionally water or an aqueous fluid is injected through the waterinjection wells and into the oil shale formation 16. This step is shownat box 155. The water may be in the form of steam or pressurized hotwater. Alternatively the injected water may be cool and becomes heatedas it contacts the previously heated formation. The injection processmay further induce fracturing. This process may create fingered cavernsand brecciated zones in the nahcolite-bearing intervals some distance,for example up to 200 feet out, from the water injection wellbores. Inone aspect, a gas cap, such as nitrogen, may be maintained at the top ofeach “cavern” to prevent vertical growth.

Along with the designation of certain wellbores 14 as water injectionwells, the design engineers may also designate certain wellbores 14 aswater or water-soluble mineral solution production wells. This step isshown in box 160. These wells may be the same as wells used topreviously produce hydrocarbons or inject heat. These recovery wells maybe used to produce an aqueous solution of dissolved water-solubleminerals and other species, including, for example, migratorycontaminant species. For example, the solution may be one primarily ofdissolved soda ash. This step is shown in box 165. Alternatively, singlewellbores may be used to both inject water and then to recover a sodiummineral solution. Thus, box 165 includes the option of using the samewellbores 14 for both water injection and solution production (Box 165).

Temporary control of the migration of the migratory contaminant species,especially during the pyrolysis process, can be obtained via placementof the injection and production wells 14 such that fluid flow out of theheated zone is minimized. Typically, this involves placing injectionwells at the periphery of the heated zone so as to cause pressuregradients which prevent flow inside the heated zone from leaving thezone.

FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of an illustrative oil shale formationthat is within or connected to ground water aquifers and a formationleaching operation. Four separate oil shale formation zones are depicted(23, 24, 25 and 26) within the oil shale formation. The water aquifersare below the ground surface 27, and are categorized as an upper aquifer20 and a lower aquifer 22. Intermediate the upper and lower aquifers isan aquitard 21. It can be seen that certain zones of the formation areboth aquifers or aquitards and oil shale zones. A plurality of wells(28, 29, 30 and 31) is shown traversing vertically downward through theaquifers. One of the wells is serving as a water injection well 31,while another is serving as a water production well 30. In this way,water is circulated 32 through at least the lower aquifer 22.

FIG. 3 shows diagrammatically water circulating 32 through an oil shalevolume that was heated 33, that resides within or is connected to anaquifer 22, and from which hydrocarbon fluids were previously recovered.Introduction of water via the water injection well 31 forces water intothe previously heated oil shale 33 and water-soluble minerals andmigratory contaminants species are swept to the water production well30. The water may then processed in a facility 34 wherein thewater-soluble minerals (e.g. nahcolite or soda ash) and the migratorycontaminants may be substantially removed from the water stream. Wateris then reinjected into the oil shale volume 33 and the formationleaching is repeated. This leaching with water is intended to continueuntil levels of migratory contaminant species are at environmentallyacceptable levels within the previously heated oil shale zone 33. Thismay require 1 cycle, 2 cycles, 5 cycles 10 cycles or more cycles offormation leaching, where a single cycle indicates injection andproduction of approximately one pore volume of water. It is understoodthat there may be numerous water injection and water production wells inan actual oil shale development. Moreover, the system may includemonitoring wells (28 and 29) which can be utilized during the oil shaleheating phase, the shale oil production phase, the leaching phase, orduring any combination of these phases to monitor for migratorycontaminant species and/or water-soluble minerals.

In some fields, formation hydrocarbons, such as oil shale, may exist inmore than one subsurface formation. In some instances, the organic-richrock formations may be separated by rock layers that arehydrocarbon-free or that otherwise have little or no commercial value.Therefore, it may be desirable for the operator of a field underhydrocarbon development to undertake an analysis as to which of thesubsurface, organic-rich rock formations to target or in which orderthey should be developed.

The organic-rich rock formation may be selected for development based onvarious factors. One such factor is the thickness of the hydrocarboncontaining layer within the formation. Greater pay zone thickness mayindicate a greater potential volumetric production of hydrocarbonfluids. Each of the hydrocarbon containing layers may have a thicknessthat varies depending on, for example, conditions under which theformation hydrocarbon containing layer was formed. Therefore, anorganic-rich rock formation will typically be selected for treatment ifthat formation includes at least one formation hydrocarbon-containinglayer having a thickness sufficient for economical production ofproduced fluids.

An organic-rich rock formation may also be chosen if the thickness ofseveral layers that are closely spaced together is sufficient foreconomical production of produced fluids. For example, an in situconversion process for formation hydrocarbons may include selecting andtreating a layer within an organic-rich rock formation having athickness of greater than about 5 meters, 10 meters, 50 meters, or even100 meters. In this manner, heat losses (as a fraction of total injectedheat) to layers formed above and below an organic-rich rock formationmay be less than such heat losses from a thin layer of formationhydrocarbons. A process as described herein, however, may also includeselecting and treating layers that may include layers substantially freeof formation hydrocarbons or thin layers of formation hydrocarbons.

The richness of one or more organic-rich rock formations may also beconsidered. Richness may depend on many factors including the conditionsunder which the formation hydrocarbon containing layer was formed, anamount of formation hydrocarbons in the layer, and/or a composition offormation hydrocarbons in the layer. A thin and rich formationhydrocarbon layer may be able to produce significantly more valuablehydrocarbons than a much thicker, less rich formation hydrocarbon layer.Of course, producing hydrocarbons from a formation that is both thickand rich is desirable.

The kerogen content of an organic-rich rock formation may be ascertainedfrom outcrop or core samples using a variety of data. Such data mayinclude organic carbon content, hydrogen index, and modified Fischerassay analyses. The Fischer Assay is a standard method which involvesheating a sample of a formation hydrocarbon containing layer toapproximately 500° C. in one hour, collecting fluids produced from theheated sample, and quantifying the amount of fluids produced.

Subsurface formation permeability may also be assessed via rock samples,outcrops, or studies of ground water flow. Furthermore the connectivityof the development area to ground water sources may be assessed. Thus,an organic-rich rock formation may be chosen for development based onthe permeability or porosity of the formation matrix even if thethickness of the formation is relatively thin.

Other factors known to petroleum engineers may be taken intoconsideration when selecting a formation for development. Such factorsinclude depth of the perceived pay zone, stratigraphic proximity offresh ground water to kerogen-containing zones, continuity of thickness,and other factors. For instance, the assessed fluid production contentwithin a formation will also effect eventual volumetric production.

In producing hydrocarbon fluids from an oil shale field, it may bedesirable to control the migration of pyrolyzed fluids. In someinstances, this includes the use of injection wells, particularly aroundthe periphery of the field. Such wells may inject water, steam, CO₂,heated methane, or other fluids to drive cracked kerogen fluids inwardlytowards production wells. In some embodiments, physical barriers may beplaced around the area of the organic-rich rock formation underdevelopment. One example of a physical barrier involves the creation offreeze walls. Freeze walls are formed by circulating refrigerant throughperipheral wells to substantially reduce the temperature of the rockformation. This, in turn, prevents the pyrolyzation of kerogen presentat the periphery of the field and the outward migration of oil and gas.Freeze walls will also cause native water in the formation along theperiphery to freeze.

The use of subsurface freezing to stabilize poorly consolidated soils orto provide a barrier to fluid flow is known in the art. ShellExploration and Production Company has discussed the use of freeze wallsfor oil shale production in several patents, including U.S. Pat. No.6,880,633 and U.S. Pat. No. 7,032,660. Shell's '660 patent usessubsurface freezing to protect against groundwater flow and groundwatercontamination during in situ shale oil production. Additional patentsthat disclose the use of so-called freeze walls are U.S. Pat. No.3,528,252, U.S. Pat. No. 3,943,722, U.S. Pat. No. 3,729,965, U.S. Pat.No. 4,358,222, U.S. Pat. No. 4,607,488, and WO Pat. No. 98996480.

As noted above, several different types of wells may be used in thedevelopment of an organic-rich rock formation, including, for example,an oil shale field. For example, the heating of the organic-rich rockformation may be accomplished through the use of heater wells. Theheater wells may include, for example, electrical resistance heatingelements. The production of hydrocarbon fluids from the formation may beaccomplished through the use of wells completed for the production offluids. The injection of an aqueous fluid may be accomplished throughthe use of injection wells. Finally, the production of an aqueoussolution may be accomplished through use of solution production wells.

The different wells listed above may be used for more than one purpose.Stated another way, wells initially completed for one purpose may laterbe used for another purpose, thereby lowering project costs and/ordecreasing the time required to perform certain tasks. For example, oneor more of the production wells may also be used as injection wells forlater injecting water into the organic-rich rock formation.Alternatively, one or more of the production wells may also be used assolution production wells for later producing an aqueous solution fromthe organic-rich rock formation.

In other aspects, production wells (and in some circumstances heaterwells) may initially be used as dewatering wells (e.g., before heatingis begun and/or when heating is initially started). In addition, in somecircumstances dewatering wells can later be used as production wells(and in some circumstances heater wells). As such, the dewatering wellsmay be placed and/or designed so that such wells can be later used asproduction wells and/or heater wells. The heater wells may be placedand/or designed so that such wells can be later used as production wellsand/or dewatering wells. The production wells may be placed and/ordesigned so that such wells can be later used as dewatering wells and/orheater wells. Similarly, injection wells may be wells that initiallywere used for other purposes (e.g., heating, production, dewatering,monitoring, etc.), and injection wells may later be used for otherpurposes. Similarly, monitoring wells may be wells that initially wereused for other purposes (e.g., heating, production, dewatering,injection, etc.). Finally, monitoring wells may later be used for otherpurposes such as water production.

The wellbores for the various wells may be located in relatively closeproximity, being from 10 feet to up to 300 feet in separation.Alternatively, the wellbores may be spaced from 30 to 200 feet, or 50 to100 feet. Typically, the wellbores are also completed at shallow depths,being from 200 to 5,000 feet at total depth. Alternatively, thewellbores may be completed at depths from 1,000 to 4,000 feet, or 1,500to 3,500 feet. In some embodiments, the oil shale formation targeted forin situ retorting is at a depth greater than 200 feet below the surface.In alternative embodiments, the oil shale formation targeted for in situretorting is at a depth greater than 500, 1,000, or 1,500 feet below thesurface. In alternative embodiments, the oil shale formation targetedfor in situ retorting is at a depth between 200 and 5,000 feet,alternatively between 1,000 and 4,000 feet, 1,200 and 3,700 feet, or1,500 and 3,500 feet below the surface.

It is desirable to arrange the various wells for an oil shale field in apre-planned pattern. For instance, heater wells may be arranged in avariety of patterns including, but not limited to triangles, squares,hexagons, and other polygons. The pattern may include a regular polygonto promote uniform heating through at least the portion of the formationin which the heater wells are placed. The pattern may also be a linedrive pattern. A line drive pattern generally includes a first lineararray of heater wells, a second linear array of heater wells, and aproduction well or a linear array of production wells between the firstand second linear array of heater wells. Interspersed among the heaterwells are typically one or more production wells. The injection wellsmay likewise be disposed within a repetitive pattern of units, which maybe similar to or different from that used for the heater wells.

One method to reduce the number of wells is to use a single well as botha heater well and a production well. Reduction of the number of wells byusing single wells for sequential purposes can reduce project costs. Oneor more monitoring wells may be disposed at selected points in thefield. The monitoring wells may be configured with one or more devicesthat measure a temperature, a pressure, and/or a property of a fluid inthe wellbore. In some instances, a heater well may also serve as amonitoring well, or otherwise be instrumented.

Another method for reducing the number of heater wells is to use wellpatterns. Regular patterns of heater wells equidistantly spaced from aproduction well may be used. The patterns may form equilateraltriangular arrays, hexagonal arrays, or other array patterns. The arraysof heater wells may be disposed such that a distance between each heaterwell is less than about 70 feet (21 meters). A portion of the formationmay be heated with heater wells disposed substantially parallel to aboundary of the hydrocarbon formation.

In alternative embodiments, the array of heater wells may be disposedsuch that a distance between each heater well may be less than about 100feet, or 50 feet, or 30 feet. Regardless of the arrangement of ordistance between the heater wells, in certain embodiments, a ratio ofheater wells to production wells disposed within a organic-rich rockformation may be greater than about 5, 8, 10, 20, or more.

In one embodiment, individual production wells are surrounded by at mostone layer of heater wells. This may include arrangements such as 5-spot,7-spot, or 9-spot arrays, with alternating rows of production and heaterwells. In another embodiment, two layers of heater wells may surround aproduction well, but with the heater wells staggered so that a clearpathway exists for the majority of flow away from the further heaterwells. Flow and reservoir simulations may be employed to assess thepathways and temperature history of hydrocarbon fluids generated in situas they migrate from their points of origin to production wells.

FIG. 4 provides a plan view of an illustrative heater well arrangementusing more than one layer of heater wells. The heater well arrangementis used in connection with the production of hydrocarbons from a shaleoil development area 400. In FIG. 4, the heater well arrangement employsa first layer of heater wells 410, surrounded by a second layer ofheater wells 420. The heater wells in the first layer 410 are referencedat 431, while the heater wells in the second layer 420 are referenced at432.

A production well 440 is shown central to the well layers 410 and 420.It is noted that the heater wells 432 in the second layer 420 of wellsare offset from the heater wells 431 in the first layer 410 of wells,relative to the production well 440. The purpose is to provide aflowpath for converted hydrocarbons that minimizes travel near a heaterwell in the first layer 410 of heater wells. This, in turn, minimizessecondary cracking of hydrocarbons converted from kerogen ashydrocarbons flow from the second layer of wells 420 to the productionwells 440.

In the illustrative arrangement of FIG. 4, the first layer 410 and thesecond layer 420 each defines a 5-spot pattern. However, it isunderstood that other patterns may be employed, such as 3-spot or 6-spotpatterns. In any instance, a plurality of heater wells 431 comprising afirst layer of heater wells 410 is placed around a production well 440,with a second plurality of heater wells 432 comprising a second layer ofheater wells 420 placed around the first layer 410.

The heater wells in the two layers also may be arranged such that themajority of hydrocarbons generated by heat from each heater well 432 inthe second layer 420 are able to migrate to a production well 440without passing substantially near a heater well 431 in the first layer410. The heater wells 431, 432 in the two layers 410, 420 further may bearranged such that the majority of hydrocarbons generated by heat fromeach heater well 432 in the second layer 420 are able to migrate to theproduction well 440 without passing through a zone of substantiallyincreasing formation temperature.

Another method for reducing the number of heater wells is to use wellpatterns that are elongated in a particular direction, particularly in adirection determined to provide the most efficient thermal conductivity.Heat convection may be affected by various factors such as beddingplanes and stresses within the formation. For instance, heat convectionmay be more efficient in the direction perpendicular to the leasthorizontal principal stress on the formation. In some instanced, heatconvection may be more efficient in the direction parallel to the leasthorizontal principal stress.

In connection with the development of a shale oil field, it may bedesirable that the progression of heat through the subsurface inaccordance with steps 130 and 135 be uniform. However, for variousreasons the heating and maturation of formation hydrocarbons in asubsurface formation may not proceed uniformly despite a regulararrangement of heater and production wells. Heterogeneities in the oilshale properties and formation structure may cause certain local areasto be more or less productive. Moreover, formation fracturing whichoccurs due to the heating and maturation of the oil shale can lead to anuneven distribution of preferred pathways and, thus, increase flow tocertain production wells and reduce flow to others. Uneven fluidmaturation may be an undesirable condition since certain subsurfaceregions may receive more heat energy than necessary where other regionsreceive less than desired. This, in turn, leads to the uneven flow andrecovery of production fluids. Produced oil quality, overall productionrate, and/or ultimate recoveries may be reduced.

To detect uneven flow conditions, production and heater wells may beinstrumented with sensors. Sensors may include equipment to measuretemperature, pressure, flow rates, and/or compositional information.Data from these sensors can be processed via simple rules or input todetailed simulations to reach decisions on how to adjust heater andproduction wells to improve subsurface performance. Production wellperformance may be adjusted by controlling backpressure or throttling onthe well. Heater well performance may also be adjusted by controllingenergy input. Sensor readings may also sometimes imply mechanicalproblems with a well or downhole equipment which requires repair,replacement, or abandonment.

In one embodiment, flow rate, compositional, temperature and/or pressuredata are utilized from two or more wells as inputs to a computeralgorithm to control heating rate and/or production rates. Unmeasuredconditions at or in the neighborhood of the well are then estimated andused to control the well. For example, in situ fracturing behavior andkerogen maturation are estimated based on thermal, flow, andcompositional data from a set of wells. In another example, wellintegrity is evaluated based on pressure data, well temperature data,and estimated in situ stresses. In a related embodiment the number ofsensors is reduced by equipping only a subset of the wells withinstruments, and using the results to interpolate, calculate, orestimate conditions at uninstrumented wells. Certain wells may have onlya limited set of sensors (e.g., wellhead temperature and pressure only)where others have a much larger set of sensors (e.g., wellheadtemperature and pressure, bottomhole temperature and pressure,production composition, flow rate, electrical signature, casing strain,etc.).

As noted above, there are various methods for applying heat to anorganic-rich rock formation. For example, one method may includeelectrical resistance heaters disposed in a wellbore or outside of awellbore. One such method involves the use of electrical resistiveheating elements in a cased or uncased wellbore. Electrical resistanceheating involves directly passing electricity through a conductivematerial such that resistive losses cause it to heat the conductivematerial. Other heating methods include the use of downhole combustors,in situ combustion, radio-frequency (RF) electrical energy, or microwaveenergy. Still others include injecting a hot fluid into the oil shaleformation to directly heat it. The hot fluid may or may not becirculated.

One method for formation heating involves the use of electricalresistors in which an electrical current is passed through a resistivematerial which dissipates the electrical energy as heat. This method isdistinguished from dielectric heating in which a high-frequencyoscillating electric current induces electrical currents in nearbymaterials and causes them to heat. The electric heater may include aninsulated conductor, an elongated member disposed in the opening, and/ora conductor disposed in a conduit. An early patent disclosing the use ofelectrical resistance heaters to produce oil shale in situ is U.S. Pat.No. 1,666,488. The '488 patent issued to Crawshaw in 1928. Since 1928,various designs for downhole electrical heaters have been proposed.Illustrative designs are presented in U.S. Pat. No. 1,701,884, U.S. Pat.No. 3,376,403, U.S. Pat. No. 4,626,665, U.S. Pat. No. 4,704,514, andU.S. Pat. No. 6,023,554).

A review of application of electrical heating methods for heavy oilreservoirs is given by R. Sierra and S. M. Farouq Ali, “PromisingProgress in Field Application of Reservoir Electrical Heating Methods”,Society of Petroleum Engineers Paper 69709, 2001. The entire disclosureof this reference is hereby incorporated by reference.

Certain previous designs for in situ electrical resistance heatersutilized solid, continuous heating elements (e.g., metal wires orstrips). However, such elements may lack the necessary robustness forlong-term, high temperature applications such as oil shale maturation.As the formation heats and the oil shale matures, significant expansionof the rock occurs. This leads to high stresses on wells intersectingthe formation. These stresses can lead to bending and stretching of thewellbore pipe and internal components. Cementing (e.g., U.S. Pat. No.4,886,118) or packing (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 2,732,195) a heating elementin place may provide some protection against stresses, but some stressesmay still be transmitted to the heating element.

As an alternative, international patent publication WO 2005/010320teaches the use of electrically conductive fractures to heat the oilshale. A heating element is constructed by forming wellbores and thenhydraulically fracturing the oil shale formation around the wellbores.The fractures are filled with an electrically conductive material whichforms the heating element. Calcined petroleum coke is an exemplarysuitable conductant material. Preferably, the fractures are created in avertical orientation extending from horizontal wellbores. Electricitymay be conducted through the conductive fractures from the heel to thetoe of each well. The electrical circuit may be completed by anadditional horizontal well that intersects one or more of the verticalfractures near the toe to supply the opposite electrical polarity. TheWO 2005/010320 process creates an “in situ toaster” that artificiallymatures oil shale through the application of electric heat. Thermalconduction heats the oil shale to conversion temperatures in excess of300° C., causing artificial maturation.

International patent application WO2005/010320 describes using granularconductive materials within hydraulic fractures as the primary heatingelements. Also, U.S. Pat. No. 3,137,347 discloses the use of aconductive granular material to longitudinally connect subsurfaceelectrodes for in situ heating of oil shales. In the '347 patent, thegranular material is heated with the stated aim of causing the oil shaleitself to become electrically conductive.

The '347 patent envisions the granular material being an initial sourceof heat until the oil shale is warmed. At some point, the oil shaleitself is said to become electrically conductive. Heat conducted intothe surrounding formation due to the passing of current through the oilshale material itself causes pyrolysis and generates hydrocarbon fluidsfor production.

The present disclosure provides important improvements to the use ofgranular materials as part of an electrically resistive downhole heater.By using a granular material, the heater wells will be much lesssusceptible to failure due to stresses and bending. In this respect, thegranular mass can readily change shape as needed. Moreover, the heaterwells may be simpler and cheaper to construct. Thus, methods areprovided herein for applying heat to a subsurface formation whereinconductive granular material provides a conductive pathway betweenelectrically conductive members within wellbores or even betweenwellbores. In the present embodiments, the granular material itselfgenerates resistive heat sufficient to convert and continue to convertsolid hydrocarbons into hydrocarbon fluids.

Improved methods for heating a subsurface formation using an electricalresistance heater are provided. The methods described herein havevarious benefits in improving the recovery of shale oil. In oneembodiment, the method includes providing an electrically conductivefirst member in a wellbore located in a subsurface formation, and alsoproviding an electrically conductive second member in the wellbore. Themethod also includes providing an electrically conductive granularmaterial in the wellbore. The granular material has a bulk resistancethat is greater than a resistance of the conductive first member and aresistance of the conductive second member.

The granular material is positioned so as to provide an electricalconnection between the electrically conductive first member and theelectrically conductive second member. A current is established acrossthe electrically conductive first member, the granular material and theelectrically conductive second member so as to cause an electricalcurrent to flow. This generates resistive heat which, in turn, transfersheat to at least a portion of the subsurface formation.

The subsurface formation is an organic-rich rock formation. In oneaspect, the subsurface formation contains heavy hydrocarbons. In oneaspect, the subsurface formation contains solid hydrocarbons.Preferably, the subsurface formation is an oil shale formation. Themethod may include the step of further applying a voltage to cause solidhydrocarbons in the oil shale formation to be pyrolyzed into hydrocarbonfluids.

The electrical resistance of the conductive members may vary. In anyevent, a majority of the generated heat emanates from the granularmaterial. In one aspect, at least 75% of the heat is generated viaelectrical resistance of current flow through the granular material.

It is not required that the granular material directly contact theconductive members, although it is preferred that the granular materialcontacts both the first member and the second member. In manyembodiments, there is no substantial fluid flow within the granularmaterial. In some embodiment, there is no substantial hydrocarbon fluidflow within the granular material while the electrical current isestablished through the granular material. In one aspect, Darcy flow ofhydrocarbon fluids does not substantially occur through the granularmaterial and into the wellbore while the electrical current isestablished through the granular material.

Various embodiments for heater well arrangements using granular materialare described. In some embodiments, the electrical flow through thegranular material is primarily longitudinal, while in others theelectrical flow through the granular material is primarily radial. Thedesired resistivity of the in-place bulk granular material issubstantially greater for the radial flow embodiments than for thelongitudinal flow embodiments. In either arrangement, the resistive heatfrom the granular material thermally conducts into and warms thesurrounding subsurface formation, causing pyrolysis.

A voltage may be passed through the wellbore by passing an alternatingcurrent. Alternatively, the voltage may be created by passing a directcurrent. The voltage in one aspect is between about 200 and 3,000 Volts.Alternatively, the voltage is between about 400 and 2,000 Volts. As anadditional step, the method may also comprise testing the electricalconductivity of the electrical circuit formed by the electricallyconductive first member, the granular material, and the electricallyconductive second member.

The electrically conductive first member may comprise a well pipe. Thewell pipe may be, for example, a casing, tubing, or combinationsthereof. In this arrangement, the electrically conductive second membermay optionally be placed within the well pipe. In one aspect, theelectrically conductive second member hangs within the surrounding wellpipe. A weight may be placed proximate the bottom of the electricallyconductive second member so as to maintain the electrically conductivesecond member in tension.

In one aspect, the step of providing an electrically conductive firstmember in a wellbore comprises running a well pipe string in thewellbore to a first depth, the well pipe string thereby serving as atleast a portion of the electrically conductive first member. The step ofproviding an electrically conductive second member in the wellborecomprises running a second conductive string within the well pipe stringto a second depth below the first depth. The second conductive stringthereby serves as at least a portion of the electrically conductivesecond member. The step of providing an electrically conductive granularmaterial in the wellbore then includes placing the granular materialaround the second conductive string below the first depth.

The wellbore may be left uncased below the first depth. In thisinstance, the granular material resides in an annular region definedbetween the second conductive string and the surrounding subsurfaceformation. Alternatively, the wellbore may be cased with an electricallynonconductive casing below the first depth. In either instance, it ispreferred that the surface casing not be electrified so as to enhancesafety. This may be accomplished in several ways such as where theelectrical flow near the surface is through an insulated wire.

In one aspect, the well pipe string comprises an upper portion and alower portion. Each of these portions is electrically conductive. Anintermediate portion that is non-conductive is provided between theupper and lower portions. In this arrangement, the conductive firstmember may further comprises an electrically conductive wire or cable toprovide electrical communication between the lower portion of the firstmember and a power source at a surface.

In another aspect, the step of providing an electrically conductivefirst member in the wellbore includes electrically connecting anelectrically conductive third conductive member to the well pipe string.The well pipe string and the third member thus serve as at least aportion of the first member. The third member may be disposed around atleast a portion of the granular material. The third member may beelectrically connected between the well pipe string and the granularmaterial. Alternatively, the third member may be electrically connectedto the well pipe string, while the well pipe string is electricallyconnected to the granular material.

In one aspect, the second depth is near the bottom of the subsurfaceformation. The second conductive string is insulated with anelectrically insulating material from at least the first depth to athird depth. The third depth is between the first depth and the seconddepth so that at least a lower portion of the second conductive stringis left uninsulated. Then, the step of establishing a current includesestablishing a current between the well pipe string and the lowerportion of the second conductive string. In this way current is appliedthrough the granular material in order to resistively heat thesubsurface formation through the generation of heat within the granularmaterial.

The step of establishing a current may include applying a positivevoltage to the first member and a negative voltage to the second member.In this way the voltage is applied from the well pipe string, though thegranular material, and to the second conductive string. Alternatively,the step of applying a voltage may include applying a positive voltageto the second member and a negative voltage to the first member. In thisway the voltage is applied from the second conductive string, throughthe granular material, and to the well pipe string.

In another aspect, the first depth and the second depth are both nearthe bottom of the subsurface formation. An annular region is thendefined by the well pipe string and the second conductive string. Thestep of establishing a current would then include applying a voltageradially through the granular material so as to resistively heat thesubsurface formation through the generation of heat within the granularmaterial. Preferably, the first depth is proximate the shallowest depthof the subterranean formation, and the granular material is continuouswithin the annular region.

In one embodiment of the method, the subsurface formation contains twoseparate oil shale zones. The electrically conductive granular materialis placed within the annular region adjacent each of the two separateoil shale zones. The granular material may be separated within theannular region by slugs of substantially electrically insulatingmaterial. The substantially electrically insulating material may be aninsulating granular material. In one aspect, the slugs of insulatinggranular material comprise at least one of quartz sand, ceramicparticles, clay particles, and gravel.

Additional methods for heating a subsurface formation are providedherein. In one embodiment, the method includes forming a wellbore to thesubsurface formation, and then filling at least a part of the wellborewith an electrically conductive granular material to act as a resistiveheating element. The method also includes passing electricity throughthe granular material in order to generate resistive heat, and thencontinuing to pass electricity through the granular material. In thisway, additional resistive heat is generated in order to cause pyrolysisof at least some solid hydrocarbons in the subsurface formation intohydrocarbon fluids. In one aspect, the solid hydrocarbons comprisekerogen, or oil shale.

The granular material may be fabricated of various materials. In oneembodiment, the granular material is comprised of at least 50 wt. %calcined coke.

Certain electrically conductive hardware may be installed into thewellbores. In one embodiment, the method further includes placing astring of conductive casing proximate the bottom of the wellbore, andalso running an elongated conductive element into the wellbore andwithin the string of casing. This serves to form an annular regionbetween the string of conductive casing and the elongated conductiveelement along the subsurface formation. The electrically conductivegranular material is disposed in at least a portion of the annularregion. The elongated conductive element preferably comprises a metalrod or a metal wire. Preferably, the elongated conductive element iscentralized in the casing using nonconductive centralizers. In thisembodiment, the steps of passing electricity through the granularmaterial comprise passing an electrical current through the casing,through the granular material, and through the conductive element withinthe casing. This creates longitudinal resistive heating.

In an alternate embodiment, the method includes running a string ofconductive casing into the wellbore to a first depth, and running anelongated conductive element into the wellbore and within the string ofconductive casing to a lower second depth. Here, the elongatedconductive element is insulated from about the first depth in thewellbore to the second depth proximate the bottom of the wellbore, butwith an exposed portion left proximate the bottom of the wellbore. Inthis embodiment, the step of passing electricity through theelectrically conductive granular material comprises radially passing anelectrical current through the string of casing, through the granularmaterial, and through the exposed portion of the elongated conductiveelement in order to generate resistive heat in the granular material.

In each of the above methods, the electrically conductive granularmaterial may be a mixture of two or more component granular materials,each having a different conductivity. This allows the operator to adjustthe bulk resistance of the mixture. In one aspect, one or more of thecomponent granulated materials comprises essentially nonconductivematerials. Examples of such nonconductive materials include ceramicparticles, clay particles, gravel, quartz sand, or combinations thereof.In another aspect, one or more of the component granulated materialscomprises highly conductive materials. Examples of such highlyconductive materials include steel shot, metal alloy particles, metalfilings, or combinations thereof. In yet another aspect, theelectrically conductive granular material may be mixed with a binderwhich sets after being placed in the wellbore. An example of a binder iscement.

In each of the above methods, the electrically conductive granularmaterial may comprise one or more slugs of highly conductive granularmaterial interspersed between slugs of less conductive granularmaterial. In this way, only subsections of the wellbore receiving theless conductive granular material will be substantially heated. In aninverse embodiment, the electrically conductive granular materialcomprises one or more slugs of highly insulative granular materialinterspersed with slugs of more conductive granular material. In thisway, only subsections of the wellbore receiving the more conductivegranular material will be substantially heated.

In another embodiment of the methods herein, the method includes runninga string of conductive casing into the wellbore to a first depth, andthen completing the wellbore horizontally at a second depth. Thiswellbore serves as a first wellbore. The method also includes completinga second wellbore having a string of conductive casing, wherein thesecond wellbore intersects the first wellbore proximate the seconddepth. The method also includes providing electrically conductivegranular material in the first wellbore, the second wellbore, or both toprovide electrical communication between the string of casing in thesecond wellbore and the granular material in the first wellbore. In thisembodiment, the step of passing electricity through the granularmaterial comprises directing an electrical current through the stringsof casing in the first and second wellbores, and further through thegranular material to generate resistive heat. The resistive heat isstill primarily generated from the granular material.

In each of the above methods, the electrically conductive granularmaterial may be placed in the wellbore or wellbores in various ways. Inone aspect, the granular material is pumped into the wellbore as aslurry. In another aspect, the granular material is mixed with a secondmaterial to improve dry flowability. An example of such a secondmaterial is silica powder. In another aspect, the granular material isplaced in the wellbore through coiled tubing.

Yet another method for heating a subsurface formation using anelectrically resistive heater is provided herein. The subsurfaceformation comprises at least one of an oil shale zone, coal or tarsands. In this embodiment, the method includes forming a wellbore belowan earth surface and into the subsurface formation; running a string ofcasing into the wellbore; running an elongated, electrically conductiveconductor element within the string of casing; injecting electricallyconductive granular material between the conductor element and thesurrounding string of casing proximate a bottom of the wellbore; andapplying a voltage across the string of casing and the conductor elementin order to resistively heat the subsurface formation. The voltage maybe applied by passing an alternating current or a direct current. In oneaspect, the voltage is applied by passing a three-phase alternatingcurrent. The method may further include the step of testing theconductivity of the electrical circuit formed by the string of casingand the conductor element.

The wellbore in the above method is preferably substantially vertical.In this instance, the electrically conductive conductor element hangswithin the surrounding string of casing. A weighted assembly may bedisposed proximate the bottom of the conductor element to providetension to the conductor element after it is run into the wellbore. Themethod may further comprise installing electrically nonconductivecentralizers between the conductor element and the surrounding string ofcasing. The centralizers are preferably sized to frictionally engage aninner diameter of the surrounding string of casing while permittingrelative longitudinal movement between the string of casing and theconductor element. The step of installing electrically nonconductivecentralizers is performed by attaching the centralizers to the conductorelement. The conductor element may be a metal rod. Alternatively, theconductor element may be one of a metal bar, pipe or tube. Alternativelystill, the conductor element may be a wire such as an elongated wire, abraided wire or a cable.

In one aspect, the applied voltage is between 220 volts and 4,000 volts.In another aspect, the applied voltage is between 1,000 and 3,000 volts.

A resistive heater is also provided herein. In one aspect, the resistiveheater comprises a wellbore formed from an earth surface and into thesubsurface formation. Preferably, the subsurface formation is an oilshale zone. A string of casing is placed in the wellbore. In addition,an elongated, electrically conductive conductor element is placed withinthe string of casing. The conductor element may be a metal rod.Alternatively, the conductor element is one of a metal bar, pipe, ortube. Alternatively still, the conductor element may be a wire such asan elongated wire, a braided wire, or a cable.

The resistive heater also comprises electrically conductive granularmaterial. The granular material is disposed within the string of casingat a bottom of the wellbore and along the depth of the subsurfaceformation. The granular material provides an electrical connectionbetween the string of casing and the conductor element.

The resistive heater may also include a plurality of electricallynonconductive centralizers. The centralizers are disposed between theconductor element and the surrounding string of casing. The centralizerspermit relative longitudinal movement between the string of casing andthe conductor element. At the same time, the centralizers are preferablysized to slidingly engage an inner diameter of the surrounding string ofcasing.

In one aspect, the wellbore is substantially vertical. In thisembodiment, the conductor element freely hangs within the surroundingstring of casing. A weighted assembly may be disposed proximate a bottomof the conductor element in order to apply tension to the conductorelement.

To prevent hydrocarbon fluids and potentially corrosive gases fromentering the wellbore, the wellbore may optionally be sealed toformation gases. In one aspect, the wellbore is pressurized with aninert gas such as nitrogen. In one aspect, the pressure is at least 50psia.

Yet another method for heating a subsurface formation is providedherein. In one aspect, the method comprises forming a wellbore to thesubsurface formation; running a string of conductive casing into thewellbore; running a conductive string into the wellbore within thestring of casing and to the subsurface formation; filling at least apart of the wellbore with an electrically conductive granular materialto provide an electrical connection between the string of casing and theconductive string and to act as a resistive heating element; and passingelectricity through the granular material in order to generate resistiveheat. The subsurface formation preferably comprises solid hydrocarbonssuch as kerogen, or oil shale.

In one aspect the string of casing is completed at the depth of thesubsurface formation. In this instance, the granular material isdisposed in an annular region defined between the conductive string andthe surrounding string of casing such that resistivity is radiallycreated.

In another aspect, the string of casing is completed at a first depthabove the subsurface formation, leaving an open hole at the subsurfaceformation. The conductive string is insulated from about the first depthin the wellbore to a second depth proximate the bottom of the wellbore,but leaving an exposed portion proximate the bottom of the wellbore. Thegranular material is disposed substantially in an annular region definedbetween the conductive string and the surrounding open hole such thatresistivity is longitudinally generated.

In still another aspect, the string of casing is completed at the depthof the subsurface formation. The string of casing comprises a firstconductive portion to the shallowest depth in the subsurface formationdesired to be treated. The string of casing may optionally have a secondnonconductive portion extending down through the subsurface formation.The conductive string is insulated from about the first depth in thewellbore through the subsurface formation, but leaving an exposedportion proximate the bottom of the wellbore. The granular material isdisposed substantially in an annular region defined between theconductive string and the surrounding open hole or, alternatively,nonconductive portion of the casing such that resistivity islongitudinally generated.

Yet another method for heating a subsurface formation is providedherein. In one aspect, the method comprises forming a first wellborethat is substantially vertical, and is completed in the subsurfaceformation; forming a second wellbore having a deviated portion whichintersects the first wellbore within the subsurface formation; insertingheater elements into the first wellbore and the second wellbore; andactivating the heater elements to generate heat into the subsurfaceformation. The deviated portion of the second wellbore may besubstantially horizontal.

The heater elements are electrical heaters that comprise electricallyconductive granular material. Using the granular material, an electricalcommunication is created at the intersection between the first andsecond wellbores. The step of activating the heater elements comprisespassing an electrical current through the granular material to provideresistive heat to the surrounding subsurface formation.

The step of inserting heater elements into the first wellbore maycomprise running coiled tubing into the first wellbore and, optionally,the second wellbore, and pumping the granular material into at least thefirst wellbore. Alternatively, the step of inserting heater elementsinto the second wellbore comprises running coiled tubing into the secondwellbore and, optionally, the first wellbore, and pumping the granularmaterial into at least the second wellbore. In one aspect, the granularmaterial is pumped into the wellbore as a slurry. Alternatively, thegranular material is mixed with a second material to improve dryflowability. An example is silica powder.

The above method may further include forming a third wellbore that issubstantially vertical, and that intersects with the second wellborewithin the subsurface formation. A heater element is then inserted intothe third wellbore.

In another embodiment, two or three wells are drilled such that theyintersect downhole. The wells within the target formation are spacedabout 10 to 120 feet apart, and preferably 20 to 80 feet apart. Granularmaterial is placed in the wells and connected via a conductive member tothe surface. The conductive member may be casing, a rod, wire, or acombination. In the three-well case, utilization of three-phase power ispreferred. In the two-well case, direct or alternating current may beused, though alternating current is preferred. The granular materialserves as the primary heat source in the system and generates the heatvia electrical resistance.

Methods of producing hydrocarbon fluid are also provided herein. Themethods include heating an organic-rich rock formation in situ using anelectrical resistance heater, and then producing a hydrocarbon fluidfrom the organic-rich rock formation. In these methods the hydrocarbonfluid has been at least partially generated as a result of pyrolysis offormation hydrocarbons located in the organic-rich rock formation.

In one embodiment, the electrical resistance heater is formed byproviding electrically conductive first and second members in awellbore. The first member has a lower end terminating at a first depth,with the first depth being located at least partially within asubsurface formation. The first member is insulated above the firstdepth. The second member has a lower end that terminates at a seconddepth lower than the first depth. The second member is insulated abovethe second depth.

The electrical resistance heater is also formed by providing anelectrically conductive granular material in the wellbore. The granularmaterial is positioned to provide electrical communication between thelower end of the first member and the lower end of the second member. Anelectrical current is established through the first member, the granularmaterial and the second member in order to generate heat from thegranular material. At least a portion of the generated heat istransferred by thermal conduction into the surrounding subsurfaceformation.

In another embodiment, electricity is passed through a conductivegranular material to generate resistive heat within the granularmaterial. Here, the granular material is disposed between and within atleast two adjacent wellbores that are completed at least partiallywithin a subsurface formation. The granular material provides electricalcommunication between the wellbores such that a majority of theresistive heat is generated within the granular material. The granularmaterial has a bulk resistance that is greater than a resistance of thewellbores. The method then includes transferring, by thermal conduction,at least a portion of the resistive heat into the subsurface formationin order to cause in situ pyrolysis of at least some solid formationhydrocarbons to form hydrocarbon fluid.

FIG. 29 provides a flow chart showing certain steps that may beperformed in connection with one method 2900 of the present inventions.The method 2900 pertains to the heating of a subsurface formation. Inthe illustrative embodiment of FIG. 29, the method 2900 includes thestep of forming a wellbore to the subsurface formation. This step isshown at Box 2910. This step 2910 is not limited to the manner in whichthe wellbore is formed or its depth. Further, the step 2910 is notlimited to the location or type of subsurface formation. However, it ispreferred that the formation comprise solid hydrocarbons such askerogen.

The illustrative method 2900 also includes filling at least a part ofthe wellbore with an electrically conductive granular material. Thisstep is shown at Box 2920. The granular material acts as a resistiveheating element. This step 2920 is not limited to the type of granularmaterial, so long as it has a resistivity sufficient to heat thesurrounding formation in response to carrying a current.

The illustrative method 2900 also includes passing electricity throughthe granular material in order to generate resistive heat. This step isshown at Box 2930. This step 2930 is not limited to the manner in whichthe electricity is passed or the hardware downhole which delivers theelectricity. In one aspect, a voltage is applied across a string ofcasing placed downhole. The voltage is further applied through theelectrically conductive granular material and to a conductor element inorder to resistively heat the subsurface formation. The voltage may beapplied by passing an alternating current. Alternatively, the voltagemay be applied by passing a direct current. In one aspect, a three-phasealternating current is provided.

The illustrative method 2900 may include the step of continuing to passelectricity through the electrically conductive granular material togenerate additional resistive heat. This step is shown at Box 2940. Thisstep 2940 may be employed for the purpose of causing pyrolysis of atleast some solid hydrocarbons in the subsurface formation intohydrocarbon fluids. Preferably, temperatures in excess of 300° C., andperhaps greater than 500° C., are achieved from the resistive heating.

In one aspect, the steps 2910 through 2940 are repeated for one or moreadjacent wellbores. This is shown at Box 2950. Preferably, multipleheater wells are employed for heating an extended area of a subsurfaceformation. The heater wells may be placed in linear arrays, or may bearranged in patterns with hydrocarbon production wells. Examples of suchpatterns included 3-spot, 5-spot and 7-spot well patterns.

In order to practice the illustrative method 2900, a heater well isemployed. Various arrangements for a heater well may be used. Such wellscontemplate the use of electrical resistance heaters and well designsthat are relatively low cost, and yet robust. These designs may, incertain embodiments, provide heater wells that survive high temperatureswithout experiencing problems associated with material softening andcreep. Such wells may also, in certain applications, avoid problemsassociated with high geomechanical stresses on the well due to thermalexpansion or formation subsidence arising from maturation of the oilshale and resulting formation fracturing and movement.

FIG. 30A is a cross-sectional view of an illustrative heater well 300,in one embodiment. Here, a wellbore 305 is completed from an earthsurface 302, through the subterranean earth 304, and through a targetedsubsurface formation 308. The wellbore 305 has a wall 306 that defines aradius. The wellbore 305 is completed as an open hole at the level ofthe targeted formation 308. Preferably, the formation 308 comprisessolid hydrocarbons such as kerogen.

The heater well 300 comprises an electrically conductive first member310. In the illustrative heater well 300, the electrically conductivefirst member 310 is a string of casing. The string of casing 310 has atop end 312 adjacent the earth surface 302, and a lower end 314.

The lower end 314 is completed at a first depth. Below the lower end314, the wellbore 305 is completed as an open hole.

The string of casing 310 may be fabricated from any conductive material.In one aspect, the material is a metal having a low resistivity. Forexample, the string of casing 310 may be constructed from a materialhaving a resistivity less than about 0.00001 (1×10⁻⁵) ohm-meters.

The heater well 300 also comprises an electrically conductive secondmember 320. In the illustrative heater well 300, the electricallyconductive second member 320 is a solid rod. However, the electricallyconductive second member 320 may be an elongated tubular body.Alternatively, the electrically conductive second member 320 may be athin solid body such as an elongated wire. The wire may be, for example,a solid wire, a braided wire or a cable.

The solid rod (or other conductive member) 320 has a top end 322adjacent the earth surface 302, and a lower end 324. The lower end 324is completed at a second depth within the wellbore 305. This seconddepth is below the first depth, and extends to or near the bottom of thewellbore 305. It is preferred that the conductive second member 320 havea weight (not shown) proximate the lower end 324 so as to place thesecond member 320 in greater tension.

The solid rod 320 may be fabricated from any conductive material. In oneaspect, the material is a metal having a low resistivity. For example,the solid rod 320 may have a resistivity less than about 0.00001(1×10⁻⁵) ohm-meters.

In order to practice the method 2900, an electrical current is providedbetween the electrically conductive first member 310 and theelectrically conductive second member 320. Therefore, a power source 330is employed. The power source 330 delivers an electrical current toeither the electrically conductive first member 310 or the electricallyconductive second member 320. Conductive wire 332 provides electricalcommunication between the power source 330 and the solid rod 320, whileconductive wire 334 provides electrical communication between the powersource 330 and the string of casing 310. A third wire 336 optionallygoes to ground.

In one aspect, a positive pole is set up at conductive wire 334, while anegative pole is set up at conductive wire 332. Current flows down thewellbore 305 through the string of casing 310, and then up the wellbore305 through the solid rod 320. In this manner, the heater well 300 formsa circuit. Alternatively, the polarity of this circuit may be reversed.

It is necessary to provide a form of electrical communication betweenthe string of casing 310 and the solid rod 320. In accordance withmethod 2900, an electrically conductive granular material 340 is used.The granular material 340 is placed in the wellbore 305 around the solidrod 320 and within the string of casing 310.

Suitable granular material 340 may include calcined coke, graphite,metal oxides, or ceramic particles coated with thin metal layers. Thegranular material 340 may be hollow, solid, porous, sintered, oragglomerated, so long as the material 340 conducts electricity andprovides an in-place resistance generally higher than the string ofcasing 310 and the solid rod 320. The granular material may compriseregularly or irregularly shaped particles. The particles may have arange of sizes or be geometrically configured to increase the totalparticle-to-particle contact area. This serves to improve electricalconductivity. It is preferred that the lower end 324 of the secondmember 320 is sharpened so as to facilitate downward movement throughthe granular material in the event of thermal expansion of the secondmember 320.

The resistance of the in-place granular material 340 should be highenough that sufficient amounts of heat can be generated with moderatevoltages, for example, about 600 to 2400 volts. In one aspect, thein-place resistivity of the bulk material 340 is on the order of 10⁻⁵ to10⁻² ohm-meters. This value is several orders of magnitude higher thanthe resistivity of most metals, and is intentionally higher than theresistivity of the first conductive first member 310 and the secondconductive member 320.

It is noted that the range of resistivity provided above is for thein-place bulk granular material and not the individual granularparticles. The resistivity of the individual particles necessarily willbe less than the resistivity of the bulk value due to added resistancecaused by limited contact area between the granular particles.

FIG. 30B provides a graph charting in-place resistivity of the bulkgranular metal versus heated length required so that the bulk granularmaterial suffers 2,000 Watts per meter of energy dissipation (e.g.,“line loss”). The calculations are made at three different voltagelevels: line 360 charts conductive length versus in-place resistivity at500 volts; line 370 charts conductive length versus in-place resistivityat 1,000 volts; and line 380 charts conductive length versus in-placeresistivity at 2,000 volts.

The length of the heated bulk material is measured in meters, while theresistivity of the granular material is measured in ohm-meters. Thecalculations assume that the electricity flows longitudinally throughthe granular material. The granular material is packed in a tubular formhaving a 0.10 meter (about 4 inches) inner diameter.

It is noted in the graph that resistivity varies depending upon thevoltage applied through the granular material. Along each voltage line360, 370, 380, the required resistivity decreases with length of heatedmaterial. For example, for line 370 representing 1,000 volts ofelectrical energy, the resistivity at 100 meters is about 3.9×10⁻⁴ohm-meters, while at 400 meters the resistivity drops to about 2.5×10⁻⁵ohm-meters. However, the required overall resistivities increase whenthe voltage is increased. Thus, for line 380 representing 2,000 volts ofelectrical energy, the resistivity at 100 meters is about 1.6×10⁻³ohm-meters, while at 400 meters the resistivity drops to about 9.8×10⁻⁵ohm-meters. This demonstrates that the resistivity of the granularmaterial must be tailored to the heating length and supplied voltage soto achieve a desired heat dissipation.

Returning to FIG. 30A, the granular material 340 may be mixed withmaterials of greater or lower conductivity to adjust the bulkresistivity. Materials with greater conductivity may include metalfilings or shot. Materials with lower conductivity may include quartzsand, ceramic particles, clays, gravel, or cement. To achieve repeatableand uniform performance, such a granular material 340 mix may be furthermixed with another material to aid dry flowability. An example is silicapowder.

The granular material 340 may be placed in the wellbore 305 by pouringit in dry, by blowing it in through moveable and removable tubing (e.g.,coiled tubing), or by slurrying it in. Slurrying the material with aliquid is not the preferred method since the liquid will then need to beremoved if the heater well 300 is to be heated above its boiling point.Moreover, heating the well 300 to vaporize the liquid may result in voidspaces forming in the granular material 340 and interfere with theelectrical properties. Whatever method is used for placing the granularmaterial into the wellbore 305, reciprocating the casing 310, the solidrod 320, or both can aid the settling and packing of the granularmaterial 340. Additionally, a mass of substantially nonconductinggranular material (not shown) may be placed on top of the granularmaterial 340 to be heated so to provide weight for compaction.

It is desirable to prevent a short circuit in the heater well 300. Toinhibit shorting, an insulative coating 326 may be provided around theelectrically conductive second member 320. The insulative coating 326may be a ceramic coating, a cement coating, or other protective andnonconductive material. The insulative coating 326 extends through mostof the targeted formation 308, but leaves the lower portion 324 of theelectrically conductive second member 320 exposed.

In the illustrative heater well 300 of FIG. 30A, the insulative coating326 extends from the surface 302 to about the targeted formation 308.However, the insulative coating 326 may optionally start just above thetargeted formation 308. In that instance, nonconductive centralizers(not shown) would preferably be employed along the solid rod 320 toprevent contact with the surrounding casing 310.

It can be seen from FIG. 30A that the wellbore 305 is completed with ametal casing 310 that extends down to the shallowest depth of theformation 308 desired to be heated. Below this depth, the wellbore 305is left uncased. Alternatively, a nonconductive casing (not shown) maybe used below the shallowest depth to be heated. An electricalconnection 334 is made to the metal casing 310 from the power source330.

The conductive rod or wire 320, with or without insulation, is placed inthe wellbore 305 and proceeds down in one aspect to the deepest depthdesired to be heated. The conductive rod 320 is exposed near the bottom.A second electrical connection 332 is made to the rod 320 at the surface302. Suitable electrically conductive granular material 340 is packed inthe wellbore 305 and serves as a “heating element.” In one embodiment,the electrically conductive granular material 340 is interspersed withslugs of highly conductive granular material in regions where no orminimal heating is desired.

In operation, the power supply 330 is activated. A voltage is appliedacross the string of casing 310, through the electrically conductivegranular material 340, and up the solid rod 320. It is understood thatthe current may flow the opposite direction by changing the polarity ofthe power supply 330. Alternatively, alternating current may be used.The amount of power supplied may be approximately 500 to 4,000 Watts permeter of heated length or, alternatively, 1,000 to 3,000 Watts permeter.

The process of operating the heater well 300 causes heat to be generatedwithin the granular material. This heat is thermally conducted into thesurrounding formation 308. This, in turn, pyrolyzes solid hydrocarbonsinto hydrocarbon fluids. To prevent hydrocarbon fluids and potentiallycorrosive gases from entering the wellbore 305, the wellbore 305 mayoptionally be sealed to formation gases at the bottom. In one aspect,the wellbore 305 is pressurized with an inert gas such as nitrogen. Thepressure is preferably at least 50 psia.

There are other ways of forming a heater well for resistively heating asubsurface formation. FIG. 31A is a cross-sectional view of a heaterwell 3100, in an alternate embodiment. Here, a wellbore 3105 iscompleted through a targeted subsurface formation 3108. The wellbore3105 has a wall 3106 that defines a radius. The wellbore 3105 is caseddown through the formation 3108. Preferably, the formation 3108comprises solid hydrocarbons such as kerogen.

Wellbore arrangement 3100 differs from wellbore arrangement 300 in FIG.30A. In this respect, wellbore arrangement 300 utilizes a longitudinalflow of electricity. Electricity travels downward through the granularmaterial 340 until it reaches the uninsulated lower portion 324 of theconductive member 320. However, in wellbore arrangement 3100,electricity flows between an electrically conductive second member 3120and a surrounding electrically conductive first member 3110. Thus, theelectricity flows radially through the granular material rather thanlongitudinally.

The heater well 3100 comprises an electrically conductive first member3110. In the illustrative heater well 3100, the electrically conductivefirst member 3110 is again a string of casing. The string of casing 3110has a top end 3112 adjacent the earth surface 3102, and a lower end3114. The lower end 3114 is completed at a first depth which isproximate the bottom of the wellbore 3105.

The electrically conductive first member 3110 may again be fabricatedfrom any conductive material. In one aspect, the material is a metalhaving a low resistivity. For example, the conductive material composingthe electrically conductive first member 3110 may have a resistivityless than about 0.00001 (1×10⁻⁵) ohm-meters.

The heater well 3100 also comprises an electrically conductive secondmember 3120. In the illustrative heater well 3100, the electricallyconductive second member 3120 is a solid rod. However, the electricallyconductive second member 3120 may be an elongated wire or a tubular bodysuch as a string of metal tubing. The solid rod 3120 has a top end 3122adjacent the earth surface 3102, and a lower end 3124. The lower end3124 is also completed proximate the bottom of the wellbore 3105.

The solid rod 3120 may be fabricated from any conductive material. Inone aspect, the material is a metal having a low resistivity. Forexample, the material composing the solid rod 3110 may have aresistivity less than about 0.00001 ohm-meters (1×10⁻⁵).

In order to practice the method 2900 using heater well 3100, it isdesirable to provide electrical current to the wellbore 3105. Therefore,a power source 3130 is employed. The power source 3130 delivers anelectrical current to either the electrically conductive first member3110 or the electrically conductive second member 3120. Conductive wire3132 provides electrical communication between the power source 3130 andthe solid rod 3120, while conductive wire 3134 provides electricalcommunication between the power source 3130 and the string of casing3110. A third wire 3136 optionally goes to ground.

In one aspect, a positive pole is set up at conductive wire 3134 and anegative pole is set up at conductive wire 3132. Current flows down thewellbore 3105 through the string of casing 3110, radially through thegranular material 3140, and then up the wellbore 3105 through the solidrod 3120. In this arrangement, the solid rod 3120 is not insulated inthe region where heat generation is desired.

It is once again necessary to provide a form of electrical communicationbetween the string of casing 3110 and the solid rod 3120 in order tocomplete the circuit. In accordance with method 2900, an electricallyconductive granular material 3140 is used. The granular material 3140 isplaced in the wellbore 3105 around the solid rod 3120 and within thestring of casing 3110.

Overall, the resistance of electrical flow through the granular material3140 is greater than the resistivity of the conductive first 3110 andsecond 3120 members. In this way, the granular material 3140 contributesthe majority of the resistive heating from the heater well 3100. In oneaspect, the granular material 3140 contributes at least 75% of theresistive heating. In one aspect, the resistivity of the in-place bulkgranular material 3140 is on the order of 100 to 10,000 ohm-meters.Suitable granular materials 3140 may include calcined coke, graphite,metal oxides, or ceramic particles coated with thin metal layers.

FIG. 31B provides a graph charting the necessary in-place resistance ofa granular heating element versus its length. The length of the heatedbulk material is measured in meters, while the resistance of thegranular heating element is measured in ohms.

The calculations assume that the bulk material is in a tubular formhaving a 2.5 cm inner diameter (about 1 inch) and 10 cm outer diameter(about 4 inches). The calculations also assume that the bulk granularmaterial suffers 2,000 Watts per meter of energy dissipation. It isnoted that the necessary resistance varies depending upon the voltageapplied through the granular material. Three lines are charted atdifferent voltage levels: line 3160 charts in-place resistance versusconductive length at 500 volts; line 3170 charts in-place resistanceversus conductive length at 1,000 volts; and line 3180 charts in-placeresistance versus conductive length at 2,000 volts.

In each instance 3160, 3170, 3180, necessary resistance decreases withthe length of heated material, and increases with the supplied voltage.This again demonstrates the need to tailor the granular materialproperties to the heating length and supplied voltage.

Returning to FIG. 31A, the granular material 3140 may be mixed withmaterials of greater or lower conductivity to adjust the overallresistivity. Stated another way, the granular material 3140 may comprisea mixture of two or more component granular materials each withdifferent electrical conductivity in order to adjust the bulkresistivity of the mixture. Materials with greater conductivity mayinclude metal filings, metal spheres, or combinations thereof. Materialswith lower conductivity may include quartz sand, ceramic particles, clayparticles, gravel, or granulated cement. To achieve repeatable anduniform performance, such a granular material 3140 mix may be furthermixed with another material such as silica powder to aid dryflowability.

In one aspect, the granular material may be mixed with a binder. Thebinder is designed to set after the granular material has been placed inthe wellbore. The binder may be, for example, cement.

In another aspect, the granular material 3140 may comprise one or moreslugs of highly conductive material interspersed between slugs of lessconductive material. In this way only subsections of the wellbore 3105receiving the less conductive granular material will be substantiallyheated. Alternatively, the granular material 3140 may comprise one ormore slugs of highly resistive material interspersed with slugs of moreconductive material. In this way only subsections of the wellbore 3105receiving the more resistive granular material will be substantiallyheated.

The well 3100 of FIG. 31A demonstrates the use of granular material 3140in layers so as to reduce or even avoid the heating of certain zones. Inthe illustrative heater well 3100, a material having little or noconductivity is shown at 3142. This nonconductive layer 3142 may be, forexample, quartz sand, ceramic particles, clays or gravel. Thenonconductive layer 3142 is placed adjacent a surrounding formation3107, with formation 3107 being disposed between or within targetedformation layers 3108. In this way, resistive heat is applied primarilyto the targeted formation layers 3108 but not appreciably to theintermediate formation 3107.

The granular material 3140 may be placed in the wellbore 3105 by pouringit in dry, by blowing it in through moveable and removable tubing (e.g.,coiled tubing), or by slurrying it in. Whatever the method of placingthe granular material in the well, reciprocating the casing 3110, thesolid rod 3120, or both can aid the settling and packing of the granularmaterial 3140. Additionally, a mass of nonconducting granular material(not shown) may be placed on top of the granular material 3140 to beheated so to provide weight for compaction.

It is again desirable to prevent a short circuit in the heater well3100. To inhibit shorting, centralizers 3126 may be provided around theelectrically conductive second member 3120. The centralizers 3126 arefabricated from a nonconductive material such as ceramic, brick, orsubstantially nonconductive cement. The centralizers 3126 preventcurrent from prematurely passing between the string of casing 3110 andthe conductive rod 3120. Alternatively, or in addition, the electricallyconductive second member 3120 may be insulated down to at least thelevel of the formation 3108 being heated as shown in FIG. 31A.Alternatively, the electrically conductive second member 3120 may befully insulated except at its lower end 3124. In this way electricalflow may be urged downwardly towards the bottom of the wellbore 3105.

Various types of centralizers 3126 may be used. In one aspect, eachcentralizer is comprised of two or more pieces which are closely fittedaround the solid rod (or other conductor element) 3120. In one aspect,the centralizers are spaced two or more feet apart, 10 feet or moreapart, or 50 feet or more apart. In one embodiment, the centralizers3126 rest upon metal supports clamped to the conductor element, or uponmetal pins or bolts disposed along the conductor element 3120. Thecentralizers 3126 preferably permit relative longitudinal movementbetween the string of casing 3110 and the solid rod (or other conductorelement) 3120. At the same time, the centralizers 3126 are preferablysized to slidingly engage an inner diameter of the surrounding string ofcasing 3110.

In operation, the power supply 3130 is activated. A voltage is appliedacross the electrically conductive first member 3110, through theelectrically conductive granular material 3140, and up the electricallyconductive second member 3120. It is understood that the current mayflow the opposite direction by changing the polarity of the power supply3130. It is also understood that alternating current may be used.

It is again noted that in heater well 3100, the electrical current flowsradially through the granular material 3140. The granular material 3140is placed in the well 3100 with the conductive casing 3110 (such assteel) and a centralized conductive rod or wire 3120. Electricalconnections are made to the casing 3110 and rod 3120 at the surface3102. Electricity is then conducted radially through the casing 3110 tothe central rod 3120, or visa versa. The electrically conductinggranular material 3140 may be interspersed with slugs of highlyinsulating granular material in regions where no or minimal heating isdesired.

The process of operating the heater well 3100 causes heat to bethermally conducted into the surrounding formation 3108. This, in turn,pyrolyzes solid hydrocarbons into hydrocarbon fluids. To preventhydrocarbon fluids and potentially corrosive gases from entering thewellbore 3105, the wellbore 3105 may optionally be sealed to formationgases at the bottom. In one aspect, the wellbore 3105 is pressurizedwith an inert gas such as nitrogen. In one aspect, the pressure is atleast 50 psia.

FIG. 32 is a cross-sectional view of a heater well 3200, in yet anotheralternate embodiment, that may be used for performing the method 2900.Here, a wellbore 3205 is formed from the earth surface 3202, through thesubterranean earth 3204, and through a targeted subsurface formation3208. The wellbore 3205 has a wall 3206 that defines a radius. Thewellbore 3205 is completed as an open hole at the level of the targetedformation 3208. Preferably, the formation 3208 comprises solidhydrocarbons such as kerogen.

The heater well 3200 is partially cased. A string of casing 3210 isshown extending down from the earth surface 3202. The string of casing3210 has an upper end 3212, and a lower end 3214. The lower end 3214 iscemented or shoed in place at or above the top of the targetedsubsurface formation 3208.

It is noted that in the heater well 3200 of FIG. 32, the casing 3210does not serve as a conductive member. Rather, the casing 3210 servesthe traditional function of supporting the surrounding subterraneanearth 3204 and isolating groundwater aquifers. The string of casing 3210may be fabricated from any material, and may be any known type ofcasing.

The heater well 3200 also comprises a pair of conductive members 3220,3240. The electrically conductive first member 3220 has an upper end3222 substantially at the earth surface 3202. The electricallyconductive first member 3220 also has a lower end 3224 that extendssubstantially through the subsurface formation 3208.

In the illustrative heater well 3200, the electrically conductive firstmember 3220 is a solid rod. However, the electrically conductive firstmember 3220 may be a tubular body, a wire, or any elongated memberfabricated from a conductive material. In one aspect, the material is ametal having a high resistivity. For example, the material composing theelectrically conductive first member 3220 may have a resistivity lessthan about 0.00001 (1×10⁻⁵) ohm-meters.

The heater well 3200 also comprises an electrically conductive secondmember 3240. In the illustrative heater well 3200, the electricallyconductive second member 3240 is also a solid rod. However, theelectrically conductive second member 3240 may be an elongated tubularbody or a wire. The wire may be, for example, a braided wire or a cable.The solid rod (or other conductive member) 3240 has an upper end 3242adjacent the earth surface 3202, and a lower end 3244. The lower end3244 terminates at a point below the lower end 3214 of the casing 3210,and preferably near the top of the targeted subsurface formation 3208.

The electrically conductive second member 3240 may be fabricated fromany conductive material. In one aspect, the material is a metal having alow resistivity. For example, the material comprising the electricallyconductive second member 3240 may have a resistivity less than about0.00001 (1×10⁻⁵) ohm-meters.

The heater well arrangement 3200 also comprises a granular material3250. The granular material provides electrical communication betweenthe first 3220 and second 3240 members. The granular material 3250 isplaced in the wellbore 3205 around the lower end 3224 of theelectrically conductive first member 3220. The granular material 3250 isfilled in the wellbore 3205 substantially through the depth of thesubsurface formation 3208, and extending around the lower end 3244 ofthe electrically conductive second member 3240. However, the granularmaterial 3250 does not contact the lower end 3214 of the casing 3210.

Suitable granular material 3250 may include calcined coke, graphite,metal oxides, or ceramic particles coated with thin metal layers. Thegranular material 3250 may be hollow, solid, porous, sintered, oragglomerated, so long as it conducts electricity and provides anin-place resistance generally higher than the metal material making upthe conductive members 3220, 3240 such that the majority of resistiveheating is generated in the granular material 3250. The resistance ofthe conductive material 3250 should be high enough that sufficientamounts of heat can be generated with moderate voltages of about 600 to2400 volts. In one aspect, the resistivity of the conductive material3250 is on the order of 10⁻⁵ to 10⁻² ohm-meters.

The granular material 3250 may be placed in the wellbore 3205 in thesame manner as it is placed in wellbores 300 or 3100. A mass ofnonconductive granular material may be placed on top of the conductivegranular material so as to compact it.

In order to practice the method 2900, electrical current is providedbetween the electrically conductive first member 3220 and theelectrically conductive second member 3240. Therefore, a power source3230 is employed. The power source 3230 delivers an electrical currentto either the electrically conductive first member 3220 or theelectrically conductive second member 3240. Conductive wire 3232provides electrical communication between the power source 3230 and theelectrically conductive first member 3220, while conductive wire 3234provides electrical communication between the power source 3230 and theelectrically conductive second member 3240.

In one aspect, a positive pole is set up at conductive wire 3234, whilea negative pole is set up at conductive wire 3232. Current flows downthe wellbore 3205 through the electrically conductive second member3240, and then up the wellbore 3205 through the electrically conductivefirst member 3220.

It is desirable to prevent a short circuit in the heater well 3200. Toinhibit shorting, an insulative coating 3226 may be provided around theelectrically conductive first member 3220. Similarly, an insulativecoating 3246 may be provided around the electrically conductive firstmember 3220. The insulative coatings 3226, 3246 may be a ceramiccoating, a cement coating, or other protective and nonconductivematerial. The insulative coatings 3226, 3246 extend along the length ofthe conductive members 3220, 3240, respectively, but leave the lowerportions 3224, 3244 exposed.

In operation, the power supply 3230 is activated. A voltage is appliedacross the electrically conductive second member 3240, through theelectrically conductive granular material 3250, and up the electricallyconductive first member 3220. It is understood that the current may flowthe opposite direction by changing the polarity of the power supply3230. Alternatively, an alternating current may be used. The amount ofpower supplied may be approximately 500 Watts to 4000 Watts per meter ofheated length. More preferably, the amount of power supplied may beapproximately 1,000 to 3,000 Watts per meter.

The process of operating the heater well 3200 causes heat to bethermally conducted into the surrounding formation 3208. This, in turn,pyrolyzes solid hydrocarbons into hydrocarbon fluids. To preventhydrocarbon fluids and potentially corrosive gases from entering thewellbore 3205, the wellbore 3205 may optionally be sealed to formationgases at the bottom.

There are still other ways of forming a heater well for resistivelyheating a subsurface formation. FIG. 33 is a cross-sectional view of aheater well 3300, in an alternate embodiment. Here, a wellbore 3305 iscompleted through a targeted subsurface formation 3308. The wellbore3305 is cased down through the formation 3308.

The heater well 3300 comprises an electrically conductive first member3310. In the illustrative heater well 3300, the electrically conductivefirst member 3310 is again a string of casing. The string of casing 3310has a top end 3312 adjacent the earth surface 3302, and a lower end3314. The lower end 3314 is completed at a first depth which isproximate the bottom of the wellbore 3305.

The string of casing 3310 may again be fabricated from any conductivematerial. In one aspect, the material is a metal having a lowresistivity. For example, the material comprising the string of casing3310 may have a resistivity less than about 0.00001 (1×10⁻⁵) ohm-meters.

The heater well 3300 also comprises an electrically conductive secondmember 3320. In the illustrative heater well 3300, the electricallyconductive second member 3320 is a solid rod. However, the electricallyconductive second member 3320 may be an elongated wire or a tubular bodysuch as a string of tubing. The electrically conductive second member3320 has a top end 3322 adjacent the earth surface 3302, and a lower end3324. The lower end 3324 is also completed proximate the bottom of thewellbore 3305.

The electrically conductive second member 3320 may be fabricated fromany conductive material. In one aspect, the material is a metal alsohaving a low resistivity. For example, the solid rod 3310 may have aresistivity less than about 0.00001 (1×10⁻⁵) ohm-meters.

In order to practice the method 2900, an electrical current is providedto the wellbore 3305. Therefore, a power source 3330 is employed. Thepower source 3330 delivers an electrical current to either theelectrically conductive first member 3310 or the electrically conductivesecond member 3320. Conductive wire 3332 provides electricalcommunication between the power source 3330 and the electricallyconductive second member 3320, while conductive wire 3334 provideselectrical communication between the power source 3330 and the string ofcasing 3310.

In one aspect, a positive pole is set up at conductive wire 3334 and anegative pole is set up at conductive wire 3332. Current flows down thewellbore 3305 through the string of casing 3310, and then up thewellbore 3305 through the electrically conductive second member 3320. Inthis arrangement, the electrically conductive second member 3320 is notinsulated.

It is once again necessary to provide a form of electrical communicationbetween the string of casing 3310 and the electrically conductive secondmember 3320 in order to complete the circuit. In accordance with method2900, an electrically conductive granular material 3340 is used. Thegranular material 3340 is placed in the wellbore 3305 around theelectrically conductive second member 3320 and within the string ofcasing 3310.

Suitable granular materials 3340 may once again include calcined coke,graphite, metal oxides, or ceramic particles coated with thin metallayers. The electrically conductive granular material 3340 has aresistivity that is higher than the metal material making up the stringof casing 3310 and the electrically conductive second member 3320. Inone aspect, the bulk resistivity of the in-place bulk granular material3340 is on the order of 100 to 10,000 ohm-meters.

The granular material 3340 may be placed in the wellbore 3305 by pouringit in dry, by blowing it in through moveable and removable tubing (e.g.,coiled tubing), or by slurrying it in. Whatever method is used forplacing the granular material in the well, reciprocating the casing3310, the electrically conductive second member 3320, or both can aidthe settling and packing of the granular material 3340. Additionally, amass of nonconducting granular material (not shown) may be placed on topof the granular material 3340 to be heated so to provide weight forcompaction. Compaction, in turn, increases surface-to-surface contactarea.

To further inhibit shorting, centralizers 3326 may be provided aroundthe electrically conductive second member 3320. The centralizers 3326are fabricated from a nonconductive material such as ceramic, brick, orsubstantially nonconductive cement. The centralizers 3326 preventcurrent from prematurely passing between the string of casing 3310 andthe electrically conductive second member 3320. The centralizers may beof the same type and construction as centralizers 3126 described inconnection with FIG. 31A.

An optional feature in the heater well arrangement 3300 is to provide anelectrical break in the electrically conductive first member 3310. Inthis respect, one or more non-conductive joints 3316 may be placedwithin the electrically conductive first member 3310 above thesubsurface formation 3308. The non-conductive joints 3316 may befabricated from, for example, ceramic or fiberglass. In thisarrangement, conductive wire 3334 serves as a heavily insulated wirethat extends within the wellbore 3305 below the non-conductive joints3316. When nonconductive joints 3316 are used, the centralizers 3326 mayoptionally be removed from around the conductive second member 3320above the depth of the nonconductive joints 3316.

As yet another option, insulated wire 3334 may extend all the way downto the top of the granular material 3340. In this arrangement, the wire3334 would serve as the electrically conductive first member itself. Thesurrounding casing 3310 would then be a substantially non-conductivepipe. In this instance, centralizers 3326 would not be required so longas the wire 3334 did not come into contact with the conductive secondmember 3320.

In operation, the power supply 3330 is activated. A voltage is appliedacross the string of casing 3310, through the electrically conductivegranular material 3340, and up the electrically conductive second member3320. It is understood that the current may flow the opposite directionby changing the polarity of the power supply 3330 or that alternatingcurrent may be used.

It is noted that in heater well 3300, the electrical current flowsradially through the granular material 3340. The granular material isplaced in the well 3300 with the conductive casing 3310 (such as steel)and a centralized conductive rod or wire 3320. Electrical connectionsare made to the casing 3310 and rod 3320 at the surface 3302.Electricity is then conducted radially through the casing 3310 to thecentral rod 3320, or visa versa. The electrically conducting granularmaterial 3340 may be interspersed with slugs of highly insulatinggranular material in regions where no or minimal heating is desired.

The process of operating the heater well 3300 causes heat to begenerated within the granular material 3340. The resistive heat isgenerated substantially within and from the granular material 3340. Thatheat is then thermally conducted into the surrounding formation 3308.This, in turn, pyrolyzes solid hydrocarbons into hydrocarbon fluids.

To prevent hydrocarbon fluids and potentially corrosive gases fromentering the wellbore 3305, the wellbore 3305 may optionally be sealedto formation gases at the bottom. Lower cap 3344 is shown in FIG. 33providing such a seal. In one aspect, the wellbore 3305 is pressurizedwith an inert gas such as nitrogen. In one aspect, the pressure is atleast 50 psia.

The use of heater wells 300, 3100, 3200, 3300 will generate and recoverhydrocarbons from oil shale or other organic-rich rocks or source rocks.Preferably, at least two adjacent heater wells representing heater wells300, 3100, 3200, or 3300 are used for the hydrocarbon recovery.Electrical current is sent through electrically conductive granularmaterial in order generate resistive heat. An AC voltage is preferred,as alternating current is more readily generated and minimizeselectrochemical corrosion. Heat is transferred to the surroundingorganic-rich rock 308, 3108, 3208 or 3308 by thermal conduction. As aresult, the organic-rich rock is heated sufficiently to convert thekerogen in the rock to hydrocarbons. The generated hydrocarbons may thenbe produced.

During the thermal conversion process, shale permeability is expected toincrease. This may be caused by increased pore volume available for flowas solid kerogen is converted to liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons, or itmay result from the formation of fractures. As kerogen converts tohydrocarbons, it undergoes a substantial volume increase that increasespore pressure in a confined system. If initial permeability is too lowto allow release of the hydrocarbons, excess pore pressure willeventually cause fractures. The generated hydrocarbons may be producedvia the same wells (after recompletion) by which the electric power isdelivered, or preferably via additional wells.

Although the process is applied in this example to generate hydrocarbonsfrom oil shale, the idea may also be applicable to heavy oil reservoirs,tar sands, or gas hydrates. In these instances, the electrical heatsupplied would serve to reduce hydrocarbon viscosity or to melthydrates. U.S. Pat. No. 6,148,911 discusses the use of an electricallyconductive proppant to release gas from a hydrate formation. It is alsoknown to apply a voltage across a formation using brine as theelectrical conductor and heating element. U.S. Pat. No. 3,547,193discusses a method and apparatus in which electrical current is causedto flow through water in a mineral bearing, subsurface formation toproduce heating of the mineral. However, it is believed that the use offormation brine as a heating element is inadequate for shale conversionas it is limited to temperatures below the in situ boiling point ofwater. This means that the circuit fails when water vaporizes.

For in situ development of shale oil, high temperatures must begenerated and maintained within the targeted formation. Shale oildevelopment typically requires temperatures in the formation in excessof about 270° C. To achieve such high temperatures throughout a targetformation, the heater wells should be even hotter, typically greaterthan 400° C. However, even with high well temperatures, the heatsubstantially travels a relatively short distance in the course ofseveral years, typically only about 20 to 50 meters. The short traveldistance is a result of the fact that conductive heat transfer is themain mechanism in the formation. Thus, many heater wells are desired totreat a large formation. Rock has relatively low thermal diffusivityvalues and many oil shale formations have very limited permeability andhence ability to support substantial convective heat transfer.

Using the heater wells 300, 3100, 3200, or 3300, various methods forheating a subsurface formation may be practiced. In one aspect, themethod includes forming a wellbore to the subsurface formation, and thenfilling at least a part of the wellbore with an electrically conductivegranular material to act as a resistive heating element. Electricity ispassed through the granular material in order to generate resistiveheat. Electricity continues to be passed through the granular materialto generate additional resistive heat in the subsurface formation. Thiscauses pyrolysis of at least some solid hydrocarbons in the subsurfaceformation into hydrocarbon fluids.

The method may further comprise placing a string of conductive casingproximate the bottom of the wellbore, and running an elongatedconductive element into the wellbore and within the string of casing. Inthis way an annular region between the string of conductive casing andthe elongated conductive element is formed. At least a portion of thegranular material is disposed in the annular region. In this embodiment,the steps of passing electricity through the electrically conductivegranular material comprise radially passing an electrical currentthrough the casing, through the granular material, and through theconductive element within the casing in order to generate resistive heatin the granular material.

In another embodiment, two elongated conductive members are run into thewellbore and within the surrounding casing string. A first elongatedconductive member extends down to a first depth, while a secondelongated conductive member extends down to a second depth below thefirst depth. Each of the conductive materials is insulated from exceptat its lower end. The conductive granular material is packed into thewellbore so as to contact the exposed lower ends of the respectiveconductive members. In this arrangement, a heating method includes thestep of passing electricity longitudinally through the first conductivemember, through the electrically conductive granular material, andthrough the exposed portion of the second conductive member in order togenerate resistive heat in the granular material.

In another embodiment, the string of conductive casing is placed intothe wellbore at a first depth. The method also includes running anelongated conductive element into the wellbore and within the string ofcasing. The elongated conductive element extends to a second depth thatis proximate the bottom of the wellbore. Here, the conductive element isinsulated from about the first depth in the wellbore to the seconddepth. An exposed portion is left in the conductive element proximatethe bottom of the wellbore. The steps of passing electricity through theelectrically conductive granular material comprise longitudinallypassing an electrical current through the casing, through the granularmaterial, and through the exposed portion of the conductive element inorder to generate resistive heat in the granular material.

In any of the above embodiments, the method may further include testingthe conductivity of the electrical circuit formed by the string ofcasing and the conductor element.

The above-described heater well arrangements 300, 3100, 3200, 3300utilize granular material within a single wellbore to generate resistiveheating. However, granular material may also be used as a resistiveelement between two or more adjacent wellbores. FIG. 34A is across-sectional view of such a multi-wellbore heater well arrangement3400A. Here, three wellbores 3405′, 3405″, 3405′″ are completed througha targeted subsurface formation 3440. The subsurface formation 3440comprises an organic-rich material such as oil shale. The organic-richmaterial may be converted to hydrocarbon fluids through a process ofpyrolysis.

Each wellbore 3405′, 3405″, 3405′″ defines a bore 3408 that extends fromthe earth surface 3402 and through the subterranean earth 3404. Thebores 3408 further extend into the subsurface formation 3440. The firstwellbore 3405′ has a lower end indicated at 3422; the second wellbore3405″ has a lower end indicated at 3424; and the third wellbore 3405′″has a lower end indicated at 3426.

The second 3405″ and third 3405′ wellbores are directionally drilled tointersect the lower end 3422 of the first wellbore 3405′. The secondwellbore 3405″ has a heel at 3427, while the third wellbore 3405′ has aheel at 3429. The second 3405″ and third 3405′″ wellbores each have atoe that converges at the lower end 3422 of the first wellbore 3405.Thus, a point of convergence 3428 below the first wellbore 3405′ isdefined by the toes.

Each wellbore 3405′, 3405″, 3405′″ has a conductive member 3410 disposedtherein. The conductive member 3410 has an upper end 3412 proximate theearth surface 3402, and a lower end 3414 terminating proximate an upperportion of the subsurface formation 3440. The conductive members 3410define an elongated, electrically conductive body. The conductivemembers 3410 may be a tubular body such as a casing string or tubing;alternatively, the conductive members 3410 may be a solid body such asan elongated wire, a metal bar or a metal rod. Alternatively still, theconductive members 3410 may comprise a combination of these bodies. Inthe heater well arrangement of FIG. 34A, the conductive member 3410 is asolid bar.

The conductive members 3410 in the wellbores 3405′, 3405″, 3405′ areelectrically connected using electrically conductive granular material3415. The granular material 3415 is placed in the respective wellbores3405′, 3405″, 3405′″ around the lower ends 3414 of the conductivemembers 3410. The granular material fills the lower ends 3414 of thewellbores 3405′, 3405″, 3405′ along the heels 3427, 3429 to the point ofconvergence 3428.

The granular material 3415 may be hollow, solid, porous, sintered, oragglomerated, so long as the granular material 3415 conducts electricityand provides an in-place resistance generally higher than the metalmaterial making up the conductive members 3410. The resistance of thein-place conductive material 3415 should be high enough that sufficientamounts of heat can be generated with moderate voltages, for example,about 600 to 2400 volts. In one aspect, the in-place resistivity of thebulk material 3415 is on the order of 10⁻⁵ to 10⁻² ohm-meters. Suitablegranular material 3415 may include calcined coke, graphite, metaloxides, or ceramic particles coated with thin metal layers.

It is again noted that the range of resistivity provided above is forthe in-place bulk granular material and not the individual granularparticles. The resistivity of the individual particles necessarily willbe less than the resistivity of the bulk value due to added resistancecaused by limited contact area between the granular particles.

In order to heat the subsurface formation 3440, an electrical current isprovided through the conductive members 3410. Therefore, a power source3430 is employed. The power source 3430 is preferably a three-phasepower source that delivers an electrical current to the respectiveconductive members 3410. Conductive wire 3432 provides electricalcommunication between the power source 3430 and the conductive member3410 in the first wellbore 3405′; conductive wire 3434 provideselectrical communication between the power source 3430 and theconductive member 3410 in the second wellbore 3405″; and conductive wire3438 provides electrical communication between the power source 3430 andthe conductive member 3410 in the third wellbore 3405′″.

Passing a current through the conductive members 3410 will also causecurrent to be passed through the granular material 3415 within thesubsurface formation 3440. The resistivity of the granular material 3415is higher than that of the conductive members 3410 so that resistiveheat is created primarily from the granular material 3415. By continuingto flow a current through the granular material 3415, the surroundingformation 3440 is warmed to the point of pyrolysis.

FIG. 34B is another cross-sectional view of a heater well 3400A. In thisembodiment, two wellbores 3405′, 3405″ are completed through a targetedsubsurface formation 3440. The subsurface formation 3440 comprises anorganic-rich material such as oil shale. The organic-rich material maybe converted to hydrocarbon fluids through a process of pyrolysis. Thewellbores 3405′, 3405″ are again electrically connected using granularmaterial.

Each wellbore 3405′, 3405″ defines a bore 3408 that extends from theearth surface 3402 and through the subterranean earth 3404. The bores3408 further extend into the subsurface formation 3440. The firstwellbore 3405′ is substantially vertical, and has a lower end indicatedat 3422. The second wellbore 3405″ is deviated, and has a lower endindicated at 3424. The lower end 3424 has a heel 3427 and a toe 3429.The toe 3429 forms a point of convergence below the first wellbore3405′.

Each wellbore 3405′, 3405″ has a conductive member 3410 disposedtherein. The conductive member 3410 has an upper end 3412 proximate theearth surface 3402, and a lower end 3414 terminating proximate an upperportion of the subsurface formation 3440. As with the heater wellarrangement 3400A, the conductive members 3410 in heater wellarrangement 3400B define an elongated, electrically conductive body. Theconductive members 3410 may be a tubular body such as a casing string ortubing; alternatively, the conductive members 3410 may be a solid bodysuch as an elongated wire, a metal bar or a metal rod. Alternativelystill, the conductive members 3410 may comprise a combination of thesebodies.

The wellbores 3405′, 3405″ are connected using electrically conductivegranular material 3415. The granular material 3415 is placed in therespective wellbores 3405′, 3405″, 3405′ around lower ends 3414 of theconductive members 3410. The granular material 3415 in heater wellarrangement 3400B has properties that are the same as the granularmaterial 3415 in heater well arrangement 3400A.

In order to heat the subsurface formation 3440, an electrical current isprovided the conductive members 3410. Therefore, a power source 3430 isemployed. The power source 3430 is preferably a two-phase power sourcethat delivers an electrical current to the respective conductive members3410. The power source 3430 may deliver a current that is an alternatingcurrent; alternatively, the power source 3430 may deliver a current thatis a direct current. In either instance, conductive wire 3432 provideselectrical communication between the power source 3430 and theconductive member 3410 in the first wellbore 3405′, while conductivewire 3434 provides electrical communication between the power source3430 and the conductive member 3410 in the second wellbore 3405″.Conductive wire 3436 optionally goes to ground.

Passing a current through the conductive members 3410 will also causecurrent to be passed through the granular material 3415 within thesubsurface formation 3440. The resistivity of the granular material 3415is higher than that of the conductive members 3410 so that resistiveheat is created primarily from the granular material 3415. By continuingto flow a current through the granular material 3415, the surroundingformation 3440 is warmed to the point of pyrolysis.

The heater well arrangements 3400A and 3400B offer heating systems thatutilize granular conductive materials. Such arrangements 3400A, 3400Bare relatively low-cost and simple to install. At the same time, sucharrangements 3400A, 3400B are robust to distorting stresses caused bythermal expansion and hydrocarbon pyrolysis.

From the heater well arrangements of FIGS. 34A and 34B, certain methodsfor heating a subsurface formation are disclosed. In one aspect, amethod is provided which first includes providing a first wellbore tothe subsurface formation, and also a second wellbore to the subsurfaceformation. Preferably, the first wellbore is vertical. The secondwellbore has a bottom portion that intersects the first wellbore withinthe subsurface formation. Thus, a point of convergence is formed.

A conductive member is run into the first wellbore. Similarly, aconductive member is also run into the second wellbore. The conductivemembers in the first and second wellbores comprise either a tubular bodyor a solid body. Examples include casing, a metal rod, a metal wire, abar, or combinations thereof.

The method includes filling at least a part of each of the first andsecond wellbores with an electrically conductive granular material. Inthis way an electrical connection between the conductive member in thefirst wellbore and the conductive member in the second wellbore isprovided at the point of convergence. The granular material also acts asa resistive heating element. An electrical current is passed through theconductive member in the first wellbore, the granular material, and theconductive member in the second wellbore. Heat is thereby generated viaelectrical resistance primarily within the granular material.

In one aspect, the first and second wellbores are spaced from about 10to 120 feet apart. More preferably, the first and second wellbores arespaced from about 20 to 80 feet apart.

In one aspect, the method further includes the step of providing a thirdwellbore. The third wellbore also has a bottom portion that intersectsthe first wellbore within the subsurface formation. A conductive memberis also run into the third wellbore.

In accordance with this embodiment, at least a part of the thirdwellbore is filled with the electrically conductive granular material.In this way an electrical connection is provided between the conductivemembers in the first, second and third wellbores at a point ofconvergence. The granular material again acts as the resistive heatingelement. In this embodiment, the step of passing an electrical currentfurther comprises passing an electrical current through the conductivemember in the third wellbore.

The purpose for heating the organic-rich rock formation is to pyrolyzeat least a portion of the solid formation hydrocarbons to createhydrocarbon fluids. The solid formation hydrocarbons may be pyrolyzed insitu by raising the organic-rich rock formation, (or zones within theformation), to a pyrolyzation temperature. In certain embodiments, thetemperature of the formation may be slowly raised through the pyrolysistemperature range. For example, an in situ conversion process mayinclude heating at least a portion of the organic-rich rock formation toraise the average temperature of the zone above about 270° C. at a rateless than a selected amount (e.g., about 10° C., 5° C.; 3° C., 1° C.,0.5° C., or 0.1° C.) per day. In a further embodiment, the portion maybe heated such that an average temperature of the selected zone may beless than about 375° C. or, in some embodiments, less than about 400° C.The formation may be heated such that a temperature within the formationreaches (at least) an initial pyrolyzation temperature (e.g., atemperature at the lower end of the temperature range where pyrolyzationbegins to occur.

The pyrolysis temperature range may vary depending on the types offormation hydrocarbons within the formation, the heating methodology,and the distribution of heating sources. Some formations by their natureare not expected to become significantly more electrically conductiveupon heating. For example, a formation may be or become sufficientlyfractured that gaps prevent electrical conduction over significantdistances (e.g., 10 meters or more). Alternatively, a formation may havean unfavorable pore structure such that continuous electrical pathwaysare absent over significant distances. Further, the formation mayinclude high amounts of inorganic constituents (e.g., sulfur) such thatconcentrated relatively pure coke is not appreciable formed uponpyrolysis of the hydrocarbons. In addition, heating may be controlledsuch that a majority of the heated portion of the formation does notreach the high temperatures expected to be required to appreciableincrease the electrical connectivity of the formation itself. Forexample, a pyrolysis temperature range may include temperatures betweenabout 270° C. and about 900° C. Alternatively, the bulk of the targetzone of the formation may be heated to between 300° to 600° C. In analternative embodiment, a pyrolysis temperature range may includetemperatures between about 270° C. to about 500° C. Literature studies(for example see: R. N. Nottenburger et al., “Temperature and stressdependence of electrical and mechanical properties of Green River oilshale”, Fuel, 58, 144-148, February 1979) have shown that temperaturesof about 500° C. or more are needed for some oil shales to haveelectrical resistivities below 10⁶ ohm-cm, which is still largelynon-conductive. Metals tend to have resistivities 11-12 orders ofmagnitude lower and even semiconductors (e.g., germanium or silicon) mayhave resistivities 3-5 orders of magnitude lower than the resistivity ofat least some oil shales at about 500° C. The required high temperaturesfor electrical conductivity of oil shales is aligned with knownelectrical behavior of petroleum coke upon calcination (see for example,Z. I. Syunyaev, et al., “Change in the Resistivity of Petroleum Coke onCalcination”, Chemistry and Technology of Fuels and Oils, 1(4), 292-295,April 1965).

Preferably, for in situ processes the heating of a production zone takesplace over a period of months, or even four or more years.Alternatively, the formation may be heated for one to fifteen years,alternatively, 3 to 10 years, 1.5 to 7 years, or 2 to 5 years. The bulkof the target zone of the formation may be heated to between 270° to800° C. Preferably, the bulk of the target zone of the formation isheated to between 300° to 600° C. Alternatively, the bulk of the targetzone is ultimately heated to a temperature below 400° C. (752° F.).

In the production of oil and gas resources, it may be desirable to usethe produced hydrocarbons as a source of power for ongoing operations.This may be applied to the development of oil and gas resources from oilshale. In this respect, when electrically resistive heaters are used inconnection with in situ shale oil recovery, large amounts of power arerequired.

Electrical power may be obtained from turbines that turn generators. Itmay be economically advantageous to power the gas turbines by utilizingproduced gas from the field. However, such produced gas must becarefully controlled so not to damage the turbine, cause the turbine tomisfire, or generate excessive pollutants (e.g., NO_(x)).

One source of problems for gas turbines is the presence of contaminantswithin the fuel. Contaminants include solids, water, heavy componentspresent as liquids, and hydrogen sulfide. Additionally, the combustionbehavior of the fuel is important. Combustion parameters to considerinclude heating value, specific gravity, adiabatic flame temperature,flammability limits, autoignition temperature, autoignition delay time,and flame velocity. Wobbe Index (WI) is often used as a key measure offuel quality. WI is equal to the ratio of the lower heating value to thesquare root of the gas specific gravity. Control of the fuel's WobbeIndex to a target value and range of, for example, ±10% or ±20% canallow simplified turbine design and increased optimization ofperformance.

Fuel quality control may be useful for shale oil developments where theproduced gas composition may change over the life of the field and wherethe gas typically has significant amounts of CO₂, CO, and H₂ in additionto light hydrocarbons. Commercial scale oil shale retorting is expectedto produce a gas composition that changes with time.

Inert gases in the turbine fuel can increase power generation byincreasing mass flow while maintaining a flame temperature in adesirable range. Moreover inert gases can lower flame temperature andthus reduce NO_(x) pollutant generation. Gas generated from oil shalematuration may have significant CO₂ content. Therefore, in certainembodiments of the production processes, the CO₂ content of the fuel gasis adjusted via separation or addition in the surface facilities tooptimize turbine performance.

Achieving a certain hydrogen content for low-BTU fuels may also bedesirable to achieve appropriate burn properties. In certain embodimentsof the processes herein, the H₂ content of the fuel gas is adjusted viaseparation or addition in the surface facilities to optimize turbineperformance. Adjustment of H₂ content in non-shale oil surfacefacilities utilizing low BTU fuels has been discussed in the patentliterature (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,684,644 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,858,049,the entire disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference).

The process of heating formation hydrocarbons within an organic-richrock formation, for example, by pyrolysis, may generate fluids. Theheat-generated fluids may include water which is vaporized within theformation. In addition, the action of heating kerogen produces pyrolysisfluids which tend to expand upon heating. The produced pyrolysis fluidsmay include not only water, but also, for example, hydrocarbons, oxidesof carbon, ammonia, molecular nitrogen, and molecular hydrogen.Therefore, as temperatures within a heated portion of the formationincrease, a pressure within the heated portion may also increase as aresult of increased fluid generation, molecular expansion, andvaporization of water. Thus, some corollary exists between subsurfacepressure in an oil shale formation and the fluid pressure generatedduring pyrolysis. This, in turn, indicates that formation pressure maybe monitored to detect the progress of a kerogen conversion process.

The pressure within a heated portion of an organic-rich rock formationdepends on other reservoir characteristics. These may include, forexample, formation depth, distance from a heater well, a richness of theformation hydrocarbons within the organic-rich rock formation, thedegree of heating, and/or a distance from a producer well.

It may be desirable for the developer of an oil shale field to monitorformation pressure during development. Pressure within a formation maybe determined at a number of different locations. Such locations mayinclude, but may not be limited to, at a wellhead and at varying depthswithin a wellbore. In some embodiments, pressure may be measured at aproducer well. In an alternate embodiment, pressure may be measured at aheater well. In still another embodiment, pressure may be measureddownhole of a dedicated monitoring well.

The process of heating an organic-rich rock formation to a pyrolysistemperature range not only will increase formation pressure, but willalso increase formation permeability. The pyrolysis temperature rangeshould be reached before substantial permeability has been generatedwithin the organic-rich rock formation. An initial lack of permeabilitymay prevent the transport of generated fluids from a pyrolysis zonewithin the formation. In this manner, as heat is initially transferredfrom a heater well to an organic-rich rock formation, a fluid pressurewithin the organic-rich rock formation may increase proximate to thatheater well. Such an increase in fluid pressure may be caused by, forexample, the generation of fluids during pyrolysis of at least someformation hydrocarbons in the formation.

Alternatively, pressure generated by expansion of pyrolysis fluids orother fluids generated in the formation may be allowed to increase. Thisassumes that an open path to a production well or other pressure sinkdoes not yet exist in the formation. In one aspect, a fluid pressure maybe allowed to increase to or above a lithostatic stress. In thisinstance, fractures in the hydrocarbon containing formation may formwhen the fluid pressure equals or exceeds the lithostatic stress. Forexample, fractures may form from a heater well to a production well. Thegeneration of fractures within the heated portion may reduce pressurewithin the portion due to the production of produced fluids through aproduction well.

Once pyrolysis has begun within an organic-rich rock formation, fluidpressure may vary depending upon various factors. These include, forexample, thermal expansion of hydrocarbons, generation of pyrolysisfluids, rate of conversion, and withdrawal of generated fluids from theformation. For example, as fluids are generated within the formation,fluid pressure within the pores may increase. Removal of generatedfluids from the formation may then decrease the fluid pressure withinthe near wellbore region of the formation.

In certain embodiments, a mass of at least a portion of an organic-richrock formation may be reduced due, for example, to pyrolysis offormation hydrocarbons and the production of hydrocarbon fluids from theformation. As such, the permeability and porosity of at least a portionof the formation may increase. Any in situ method that effectivelyproduces oil and gas from oil shale will create permeability in what wasoriginally a very low permeability rock. The extent to which this willoccur is illustrated by the large amount of expansion that must beaccommodated if fluids generated from kerogen are unable to flow. Theconcept is illustrated in FIG. 5.

FIG. 5 provides a bar chart comparing one ton of Green River oil shalebefore 50 and after 51 a simulated in situ, retorting process. Thesimulated process was carried out at 2,400 psi and 750° F. on oil shalehaving a total organic carbon content of 22 wt. % and a Fisher assay of42 gallons/ton. Before the conversion, a total of 15.3 ft³ of rockmatrix 52 existed. This matrix comprised 7.2 ft³ of mineral 53, i.e.,dolomite, limestone, etc., and 8.1 ft³ of kerogen 54 imbedded within theshale. As a result of the conversion the material expanded to 26.1 ft³55. This represented 7.2 ft³ of mineral 56 (the same number as beforethe conversion), 6.6 ft³ of hydrocarbon liquid 57, 9.4 ft³ ofhydrocarbon vapor 58, and 2.9 ft³ of coke 59. It can be seen thatsubstantial volume expansion occurred during the conversion process.This, in turn, increases permeability of the rock structure.

In an embodiment, heating a portion of an organic-rich rock formation insitu to a pyrolysis temperature may increase permeability of the heatedportion. For example, permeability may increase due to formation ofthermal fractures within the heated portion caused by application ofheat. As the temperature of the heated portion increases, water may beremoved due to vaporization. The vaporized water may escape and/or beremoved from the formation. In addition, permeability of the heatedportion may also increase as a result of production of hydrocarbonfluids from pyrolysis of at least some of the formation hydrocarbonswithin the heated portion on a macroscopic scale.

Certain systems and methods described herein may be used to treatformation hydrocarbons in at least a portion of a relatively lowpermeability formation (e.g., in “tight” formations that containformation hydrocarbons). Such formation hydrocarbons may be heated topyrolyze at least some of the formation hydrocarbons in a selected zoneof the formation. Heating may also increase the permeability of at leasta portion of the selected zone. Hydrocarbon fluids generated frompyrolysis may be produced from the formation, thereby further increasingthe formation permeability.

Permeability of a selected zone within the heated portion of theorganic-rich rock formation may also rapidly increase while the selectedzone is heated by conduction. For example, permeability of animpermeable organic-rich rock formation may be less than about 0.1millidarcy before heating. In some embodiments, pyrolyzing at least aportion of organic-rich rock formation may increase permeability withina selected zone of the portion to greater than about 10 millidarcies,100 millidarcies, 1 Darcy, 10 Darcies, 20 Darcies, or 50 Darcies.Therefore, a permeability of a selected zone of the portion may increaseby a factor of more than about 10, 100, 1,000, 10,000, or 100,000. Inone embodiment, the organic-rich rock formation has an initial totalpermeability less than 1 millidarcy, alternatively less than 0.1 or 0.01millidarcies, before heating the organic-rich rock formation. In oneembodiment, the organic-rich rock formation has a post heating totalpermeability of greater than 1 millidarcy, alternatively, greater than10, 50 or 100 millidarcies, after heating the organic-rich rockformation.

In connection with heating the organic-rich rock formation, theorganic-rich rock formation may optionally be fractured to aid heattransfer or hydrocarbon fluid production. In one instance, fracturingmay be accomplished naturally by creating thermal fractures within theformation through application of heat. Thermal fracture formation iscaused by thermal expansion of the rock and fluids and by chemicalexpansion of kerogen transforming into oil and gas. Thermal fracturingcan occur both in the immediate region undergoing heating, and in coolerneighboring regions. The thermal fracturing in the neighboring regionsis due to propagation of fractures and tension stresses developed due tothe expansion in the hotter zones. Thus, by both heating theorganic-rich rock and transforming the kerogen to oil and gas, thepermeability is increased not only from fluid formation andvaporization, but also via thermal fracture formation. The increasedpermeability aids fluid flow within the formation and production of thehydrocarbon fluids generated from the kerogen.

In connection with the production of hydrocarbons from a rock matrix,particularly those of shallow depth, a concern may exist with respect toearth subsidence. This is particularly true in the in situ heating oforganic-rich rock where a portion of the matrix itself is thermallyconverted and removed. Initially, the formation may contain formationhydrocarbons in solid form, such as, for example, kerogen. The formationmay also initially contain water-soluble minerals. Initially, theformation may also be substantially impermeable to fluid flow.

The in situ heating of the matrix pyrolyzes at least a portion of theformation hydrocarbons to create hydrocarbon fluids. This, in turn,creates permeability within a matured (pyrolyzed) organic-rich rock zonein the organic-rich rock formation. The combination of pyrolyzation andincreased permeability permits hydrocarbon fluids to be produced fromthe formation. At the same time, the loss of supporting matrix materialalso creates the potential for subsidence relative to the earth surface.

In some instances, subsidence is sought to be minimized in order toavoid environmental or hydrogeological impact. In this respect, changingthe contour and relief of the earth surface, even by a few inches, canchange runoff patterns, affect vegetation patterns, and impactwatersheds. In addition, subsidence has the potential of damagingproduction or heater wells formed in a production area. Such subsidencecan create damaging hoop and compressional stresses on wellbore casings,cement jobs, and equipment downhole.

In order to avoid or minimize subsidence, it is proposed to leaveselected portions of the formation hydrocarbons substantiallyunpyrolyzed. This serves to preserve one or more unmatured, organic-richrock zones. In some embodiments, the unmatured organic-rich rock zonesmay be shaped as substantially vertical pillars extending through asubstantial portion of the thickness of the organic-rich rock formation.

The heating rate and distribution of heat within the formation may bedesigned and implemented to leave sufficient unmatured pillars toprevent subsidence. In one aspect, heat injection wellbores are formedin a pattern such that untreated pillars of oil shale are lefttherebetween to support the overburden and prevent subsidence.

It is preferred that thermal recovery of oil and gas be conducted beforeany solution mining of nahcolite or other water-soluble minerals presentin the formation. Solution mining can generate large voids in a rockformation and collapse breccias in an oil shale development area. Thesevoids and brecciated zones may pose problems for in situ and miningrecovery of oil shale, further increasing the utility of supportingpillars.

In some embodiments, compositions and properties of the hydrocarbonfluids produced by an in situ conversion process may vary depending on,for example, conditions within an organic-rich rock formation.Controlling heat and/or heating rates of a selected section in anorganic-rich rock formation may increase or decrease production ofselected produced fluids.

In one embodiment, operating conditions may be determined by measuringat least one property of the organic-rich rock formation. The measuredproperties may be input into a computer executable program. At least oneproperty of the produced fluids selected to be produced from theformation may also be input into the computer executable program. Theprogram may be operable to determine a set of operating conditions fromat least the one or more measured properties. The program may also beconfigured to determine the set of operating conditions from at leastone property of the selected produced fluids. In this manner, thedetermined set of operating conditions may be configured to increaseproduction of selected produced fluids from the formation.

Certain heater well embodiments may include an operating system that iscoupled to any of the heater wells such as by insulated conductors orother types of wiring. The operating system may be configured tointerface with the heater well. The operating system may receive asignal (e.g., an electromagnetic signal) from a heater that isrepresentative of a temperature distribution of the heater well.Additionally, the operating system may be further configured to controlthe heater well, either locally or remotely. For example, the operatingsystem may alter a temperature of the heater well by altering aparameter of equipment coupled to the heater well. Therefore, theoperating system may monitor, alter, and/or control the heating of atleast a portion of the formation.

In some embodiments, a heater well may be turned down and/or off afteran average temperature in a formation may have reached a selectedtemperature. Turning down and/or off the heater well may reduce inputenergy costs, substantially inhibit overheating of the formation, andallow heat to substantially transfer into colder regions of theformation.

Temperature (and average temperatures) within a heated organic-rich rockformation may vary, depending on, for example, proximity to a heaterwell, thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of the formation,type of reaction occurring, type of formation hydrocarbon, and thepresence of water within the organic-rich rock formation. At points inthe field where monitoring wells are established, temperaturemeasurements may be taken directly in the wellbore. Further, at heaterwells the temperature of the immediately surrounding formation is fairlywell understood. However, it is desirable to interpolate temperatures topoints in the formation intermediate temperature sensors and heaterwells.

In accordance with one aspect of the production processes of the presentinventions, a temperature distribution within the organic-rich rockformation may be computed using a numerical simulation model. Thenumerical simulation model may calculate a subsurface temperaturedistribution through interpolation of known data points and assumptionsof formation conductivity. In addition, the numerical simulation modelmay be used to determine other properties of the formation under theassessed temperature distribution. For example, the various propertiesof the formation may include, but are not limited to, permeability ofthe formation.

The numerical simulation model may also include assessing variousproperties of a fluid formed within an organic-rich rock formation underthe assessed temperature distribution. For example, the variousproperties of a formed fluid may include, but are not limited to, acumulative volume of a fluid formed in the formation, fluid viscosity,fluid density, and a composition of the fluid formed in the formation.Such a simulation may be used to assess the performance of acommercial-scale operation or small-scale field experiment. For example,a performance of a commercial-scale development may be assessed basedon, but not limited to, a total volume of product that may be producedfrom a research-scale operation.

Some embodiments include producing at least a portion of the hydrocarbonfluids from the organic-rich rock formation. The hydrocarbon fluids maybe produced through production wells. Production wells may be cased oruncased wells and drilled and completed through methods known in theart.

Some embodiments further include producing a production fluid from theorganic-rich rock formation where the production fluid contains thehydrocarbon fluids and an aqueous fluid. The aqueous fluid may containwater-soluble minerals and/or migratory contaminant species. In suchcase, the production fluid may be separated into a hydrocarbon streamand an aqueous stream at a surface facility. Thereafter thewater-soluble minerals and/or migratory contaminant species may berecovered from the aqueous stream. This embodiment may be combined withany of the other aspects of the invention discussed herein.

The produced hydrocarbon fluids may include a pyrolysis oil component(or condensable component) and a pyrolysis gas component (ornon-condensable component). Condensable hydrocarbons produced from theformation will typically include paraffins, cycloalkanes,mono-aromatics, and di-aromatics as components. Such condensablehydrocarbons may also include other components such as tri-aromatics andother hydrocarbon species.

In certain embodiments, a majority of the hydrocarbons in the producedfluid may have a carbon number of less than approximately 25.Alternatively, less than about 15 weight % of the hydrocarbons in thefluid may have a carbon number greater than approximately 25. Thenon-condensable hydrocarbons may include, but are not limited to,hydrocarbons having carbon numbers less than 5.

In certain embodiments, the API gravity of the condensable hydrocarbonsin the produced fluid may be approximately 20 or above (e.g., 25, 30,40, 50, etc.). In certain embodiments, the hydrogen to carbon atomicratio in produced fluid may be at least approximately 1.7 (e.g., 1.8,1.9, etc.).

One embodiment of the invention includes an in situ method of producinghydrocarbon fluids with improved properties from an organic-rich rockformation. Applicants have surprisingly discovered that the quality ofthe hydrocarbon fluids produced from in situ heating and pyrolysis of anorganic-rich rock formation may be improved by selecting sections of theorganic-rich rock formation with higher lithostatic stress for in situheating and pyrolysis.

The method may include in situ heating of a section of the organic-richrock formation that has a high lithostatic stress to form hydrocarbonfluids with improved properties. The method may include creating thehydrocarbon fluid by pyrolysis of a solid hydrocarbon and/or a heavyhydrocarbon present in the organic-rich rock formation. Embodiments mayinclude the hydrocarbon fluid being partially, predominantly orsubstantially completely created by pyrolysis of the solid hydrocarbonand/or heavy hydrocarbon present in the organic-rich rock formation. Themethod may include heating the section of the organic-rich rockformation by any method, including any of the methods described herein.For example, the method may include heating the section of theorganic-rich rock formation by electrical resistance heating. Further,the method may include heating the section of the organic-rich rockformation through use of a heated heat transfer fluid. The method mayinclude heating the section of the organic-rich rock formation to above270° C. Alternatively, the method may include heating the section of theorganic-rich rock formation between 270° C. and 500° C.

The method may include heating in situ a section of the organic-richrock formation having a lithostatic stress greater than 200 psi andproducing a hydrocarbon fluid from the heated section of theorganic-rich rock formation. In alternative embodiments, the heatedsection of the organic-rich rock formation may have a lithostatic stressgreater than 400 psi. In alternative embodiments, the heated section ofthe organic-rich rock formation may have a lithostatic stress greaterthan 800 psi, greater than 1,000 psi, greater than 1,200 psi, greaterthan 1,500 psi or greater than 2,000 psi. Applicants have found that insitu heating and pyrolysis of organic-rich rock formations withincreasing amounts of stress lead to the production of hydrocarbonfluids with improved properties.

The lithostatic stress of a section of an organic-rich formation cannormally be estimated by recognizing that it will generally be equal tothe weight of the rocks overlying the formation. The density of theoverlying rocks can be expressed in units of psi/ft. Generally, thisvalue will fall between 0.8 and 1.1 psi/ft and can often be approximatedas 0.9 psi/ft. As a result the lithostatic stress of a section of anorganic-rich formation can be estimated by multiplying the depth of theorganic-rich rock formation interval by 0.9 psi/ft. Thus the lithostaticstress of a section of an organic-rich formation occurring at about1,000 ft can be estimated to be about (0.9 psi/ft) multiplied by (1,000ft) or about 900 psi. If a more precise estimate of lithostatic stressis desired the density of overlying rocks can be measured using wirelinelogging techniques or by making laboratory measurements on samplesrecovered from coreholes. The method may include heating a section ofthe organic-rich rock formation that is located at a depth greater than200 ft below the earth's surface. Alternatively, the method may includeheating a section of the organic-rich rock formation that is located ata depth greater than 500 ft below the earth's surface, greater than1,000 ft below the earth's surface, greater than 1,200 ft below theearth's surface, greater than 1,500 ft below the earth's surface, orgreater than 2,000 ft below the earth's surface.

The organic-rich rock formation may be, for example, a heavy hydrocarbonformation or a solid hydrocarbon formation. Particular examples of suchformations may include an oil shale formation, a tar sands formation ora coal formation. Particular formation hydrocarbons present in suchformations may include oil shale, kerogen, coal, and/or bitumen.

The hydrocarbon fluid produced from the organic-rich rock formation mayinclude both a condensable hydrocarbon portion (e.g. liquid) and anon-condensable hydrocarbon portion (e.g. gas). The hydrocarbon fluidmay additionally be produced together with non-hydrocarbon fluids.Exemplary non-hydrocarbon fluids include, for example, water, carbondioxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen, ammonia, and/or carbon monoxide.

The condensable hydrocarbon portion of the hydrocarbon fluid may be afluid present within different locations associated with an organic-richrock development project. For example, the condensable hydrocarbonportion of the hydrocarbon fluid may be a fluid present within aproduction well that is in fluid communication with the organic-richrock formation. The production well may serve as a device forwithdrawing the produced hydrocarbon fluids from the organic-rich rockformation. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may be afluid present within processing equipment adapted to process hydrocarbonfluids produced from the organic-rich rock formation. Exemplaryprocessing equipment is described herein. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may be a fluid present within a fluid storagevessel. Fluid storage vessels may include, for example, fluid storagetanks with fixed or floating roofs, knock-out vessels, and otherintermediate, temporary or product storage vessels. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may be a fluid present within a fluidtransportation pipeline. A fluid transportation pipeline may include,for example, piping from production wells to processing equipment orfluid storage vessels, piping from processing equipment to fluid storagevessels, or pipelines associated with collection or transportation offluids to or from intermediate or centralized storage locations.

The following discussion of FIGS. 7-16 concerns data obtained inExamples 1-5 which are discussed below in the section labeled“Experiments”. The data was obtained through experimental procedures,gas and liquid sample collection procedures, hydrocarbon gas sample gaschromatography (GC) analysis methodology, gas sample GC peak integrationmethodology, gas sample GC peak identification methodology, whole oilgas chromatography (WOGC) analysis methodology, whole oil gaschromatography (WOGC) peak integration methodology, whole oil gaschromatography (WOGC) peak identification methodology, and pseudocomponent analysis methodology discussed in the Experiments section. Forclarity, when referring to gas chromatography chromatograms ofhydrocarbon gas samples, graphical data is provided for one unstressedexperiment through Example 1, two 400 psi stressed experiments throughExamples 2 and 3, and two 1,000 psi stressed experiments throughExamples 4 and 5. When referring to whole oil gas chromatography (WOGC)chromatograms of liquid hydrocarbon samples, graphical data is providedfor one unstressed experiment through Example 1, one 400 psi stressedexperiments through Example 3, and one 1,000 psi stressed experimentthrough Example 4.

FIG. 7 is a graph of the weight percent of each carbon number pseudocomponent occurring from C6 to C38 for each of the three stress levelstested and analyzed in the laboratory experiments discussed herein. Thepseudo component weight percentages were obtained through theexperimental procedures, liquid sample collection procedures, whole oilgas chromatography (WOGC) analysis methodology, whole oil gaschromatography (WOGC) peak identification and integration methodology,and pseudo component analysis methodology discussed in the Experimentssection. For clarity, the pseudo component weight percentages are takenas a percentage of the entire C3 to pseudo C38 whole oil gaschromatography areas and calculated weights. Thus the graphed C6 to C38weight percentages do not include the weight contribution of theassociated gas phase product from any of the experiments which wasseparately treated. Further, the graphed weight percentages do notinclude the weight contribution of any liquid hydrocarbon compoundsheavier than (i.e. having a longer retention time than) the C38 pseudocomponent. The y-axis 2000 represents the concentration in terms ofweight percent of each C6 to C38 pseudo component in the liquid phase.The x-axis 2001 contains the identity of each hydrocarbon pseudocomponent from C6 to C38. The data points occurring on line 2002represent the weight percent of each C6 to C38 pseudo component for theunstressed experiment of Example 1. The data points occurring on line2003 represent the weight percent of each C6 to C38 pseudo component forthe 400 psi stressed experiment of Example 3. While the data pointsoccurring on line 2004 represent the weight percent of each C6 to C38pseudo component for the 1,000 psi stressed experiment of Example 4.From FIG. 7 it can be seen that the hydrocarbon liquid produced in theunstressed experiment, represented by data points on line 2002, containsa lower weight percentage of lighter hydrocarbon components in the C8 toC17 pseudo component range and a greater weight percentage of heavierhydrocarbon components in the C20 to C29 pseudo component range, both ascompared to the 400 psi stress experiment hydrocarbon liquid and the1,000 psi stress experiment hydrocarbon liquid. Looking now at the datapoints occurring on line 2003, it is apparent that the intermediatelevel 400 psi stress experiment produced a hydrocarbon liquid having C8to C17 pseudo component concentrations between the unstressed experimentrepresented by line 2002 and the 1,000 psi stressed experimentrepresented by line 2004. It is noted that the C17 pseudo component datafor both the 400 psi and 1,000 psi stressed experiments are about equal.Further, it is apparent that the weight percentage of heavierhydrocarbon components in the C20 to C29 pseudo component range for theintermediate stress level experiment represented by line 2003 fallsbetween the unstressed experiment (Line 2002) hydrocarbon liquid and the1,000 psi stress experiment (Line 2004) hydrocarbon liquid. Lastly, itis apparent that the high level 1,000 psi stress experiment produced ahydrocarbon liquid having C8 to C17 pseudo component concentrationsgreater than both the unstressed experiment represented by line 2002 andthe 400 psi stressed experiment represented by line 2003. Further, it isapparent that the weight percentage of heavier hydrocarbon components inthe C20 to C29 pseudo component range for the high level stressexperiment represented by line 2004 are less than both the unstressedexperiment (Line 2002) hydrocarbon liquid and the 400 psi stressexperiment (Line 2003) hydrocarbon liquid. Thus pyrolyzing oil shaleunder increasing levels of lithostatic stress appears to producehydrocarbon liquids having increasingly lighter carbon numberdistributions.

FIG. 8 is a graph of the weight percent ratios of each carbon numberpseudo component occurring from C6 to C38 as compared to the C20 pseudocomponent for each of the three stress levels tested and analyzed in thelaboratory experiments discussed herein. The pseudo component weightpercentages were obtained as described for FIG. 7. The y-axis 2020represents the weight ratio of each C6 to C38 pseudo component comparedto the C20 pseudo component in the liquid phase. The x-axis 2021contains the identity of each hydrocarbon pseudo component ratio fromC6/C20 to C38/C20. The data points occurring on line 2022 represent theweight ratio of each C6 to C38 pseudo component to C20 pseudo componentfor the unstressed experiment of Example 1. The data points occurring online 2023 represent the weight ratio of each C6 to C38 pseudo componentto C20 pseudo component for the 400 psi stressed experiment of Example3. While the data points occurring on line 2024 represent the weightratio of each C6 to C38 pseudo component to C20 pseudo component for the1,000 psi stressed experiment of Example 4. From FIG. 8 it can be seenthat the hydrocarbon liquid produced in the unstressed experiment,represented by data points on line 2022, contains a lower weightpercentage of lighter hydrocarbon components in the C8 to C18 pseudocomponent range as compared to the C20 pseudo component and a greaterweight percentage of heavier hydrocarbon components in the C22 to C29pseudo component range as compared to the C20 pseudo component, both ascompared to the 400 psi stress experiment hydrocarbon liquid and the1,000 psi stress experiment hydrocarbon liquid. Looking now at the datapoints occurring on line 2023, it is apparent that the intermediatelevel 400 psi stress experiment produced a hydrocarbon liquid having C8to C18 pseudo component concentrations as compared to the C20 pseudocomponent between the unstressed experiment represented by line 2022 andthe 1,000 psi stressed experiment represented by line 2024. Further, itis apparent that the weight percentage of heavier hydrocarbon componentsin the C22 to C29 pseudo component range as compared to the C20 pseudocomponent for the intermediate stress level experiment represented byline 2023 falls between the unstressed experiment (Line 2022)hydrocarbon liquid and the 1,000 psi stress experiment (Line 2024)hydrocarbon liquid. Lastly, it is apparent that the high level 1,000 psistress experiment produced a hydrocarbon liquid having C8 to C18 pseudocomponent concentrations as compared to the C20 pseudo component greaterthan both the unstressed experiment represented by line 2022 and the 400psi stressed experiment represented by line 2023. Further, it isapparent that the weight percentage of heavier hydrocarbon components inthe C22 to C29 pseudo component range as compared to the C20 pseudocomponent for the high level stress experiment represented by line 2024are less than both the unstressed experiment (Line 2022) hydrocarbonliquid and the 400 psi stress experiment (Line 2023) hydrocarbon liquid.This analysis further supports the relationship that pyrolizing oilshale under increasing levels of lithostatic stress produces hydrocarbonliquids having increasingly lighter carbon number distributions.

FIG. 9 is a graph of the weight percent ratios of each carbon numberpseudo component occurring from C6 to C38 as compared to the C25 pseudocomponent for each of the three stress levels tested and analyzed in thelaboratory experiments discussed herein. The pseudo component weightpercentages were obtained as described for FIG. 7. The y-axis 2040represents the weight ratio of each C6 to C38 pseudo component comparedto the C25 pseudo component in the liquid phase. The x-axis 2041contains the identity of each hydrocarbon pseudo component ratio fromC6/C25 to C38/C25. The data points occurring on line 2042 represent theweight ratio of each C6 to C38 pseudo component to C25 pseudo componentfor the unstressed experiment of Example 1. The data points occurring online 2043 represent the weight ratio of each C6 to C38 pseudo componentto C25 pseudo component for the 400 psi stressed experiment of Example3. While the data points occurring on line 2044 represent the weightratio of each C6 to C38 pseudo component to C25 pseudo component for the1,000 psi stressed experiment of Example 4. From FIG. 9 it can be seenthat the hydrocarbon liquid produced in the unstressed experiment,represented by data points on line 2042, contains a lower weightpercentage of lighter hydrocarbon components in the C7 to C24 pseudocomponent range as compared to the C25 pseudo component and a greaterweight percentage of heavier hydrocarbon components in the C26 to C29pseudo component range as compared to the C25 pseudo component, both ascompared to the 400 psi stress experiment hydrocarbon liquid and the1,000 psi stress experiment hydrocarbon liquid. Looking now at the datapoints occurring on line 2043, it is apparent that the intermediatelevel 400 psi stress experiment produced a hydrocarbon liquid having C7to C24 pseudo component concentrations as compared to the C25 pseudocomponent between the unstressed experiment represented by line 2042 andthe 1,000 psi stressed experiment represented by line 2044. Further, itis apparent that the weight percentage of heavier hydrocarbon componentsin the C26 to C29 pseudo component range as compared to the C25 pseudocomponent for the intermediate stress level experiment represented byline 2043 falls between the unstressed experiment (Line 2042)hydrocarbon liquid and the 1,000 psi stress experiment (Line 2044)hydrocarbon liquid. Lastly, it is apparent that the high level 1,000 psistress experiment produced a hydrocarbon liquid having C7 to C24 pseudocomponent concentrations as compared to the C25 pseudo component greaterthan both the unstressed experiment represented by line 2042 and the 400psi stressed experiment represented by line 2043. Further, it isapparent that the weight percentage of heavier hydrocarbon components inthe C26 to C29 pseudo component range as compared to the C25 pseudocomponent for the high level stress experiment represented by line 2044are less than both the unstressed experiment (Line 2042) hydrocarbonliquid and the 400 psi stress experiment (Line 2043) hydrocarbon liquid.This analysis further supports the relationship that pyrolizing oilshale under increasing levels of lithostatic stress produces hydrocarbonliquids having increasingly lighter carbon number distributions.

FIG. 10 is a graph of the weight percent ratios of each carbon numberpseudo component occurring from C6 to C38 as compared to the C29 pseudocomponent for each of the three stress levels tested and analyzed in thelaboratory experiments discussed herein. The pseudo component weightpercentages were obtained as described for FIG. 7. The y-axis 2060represents the weight ratio of each C6 to C38 pseudo component comparedto the C29 pseudo component in the liquid phase. The x-axis 2061contains the identity of each hydrocarbon pseudo component ratio fromC6/C29 to C38/C29. The data points occurring on line 2062 represent theweight ratio of each C6 to C38 pseudo component to C29 pseudo componentfor the unstressed experiment of Example 1. The data points occurring online 2063 represent the weight ratio of each C6 to C38 pseudo componentto C29 pseudo component for the 400 psi stressed experiment of Example3. While the data points occurring on line 2064 represent the weightratio of each C6 to C38 pseudo component to C29 pseudo component for the1,000 psi stressed experiment of Example 4. From FIG. 10 it can be seenthat the hydrocarbon liquid produced in the unstressed experiment,represented by data points on line 2062, contains a lower weightpercentage of lighter hydrocarbon components in the C6 to C28 pseudocomponent range as compared to the C29 pseudo component, both ascompared to the 400 psi stress experiment hydrocarbon liquid and the1,000 psi stress experiment hydrocarbon liquid. Looking now at the datapoints occurring on line 2063, it is apparent that the intermediatelevel 400 psi stress experiment produced a hydrocarbon liquid having C6to C28 pseudo component concentrations as compared to the C29 pseudocomponent between the unstressed experiment represented by line 2062 andthe 1,000 psi stressed experiment represented by line 2064. Lastly, itis apparent that the high level 1,000 psi stress experiment produced ahydrocarbon liquid having C6 to C28 pseudo component concentrations ascompared to the C29 pseudo component greater than both the unstressedexperiment represented by line 2062 and the 400 psi stressed experimentrepresented by line 2063. This analysis further supports therelationship that pyrolizing oil shale under increasing levels oflithostatic stress produces hydrocarbon liquids having increasinglylighter carbon number distributions.

FIG. 11 is a graph of the weight percent of normal alkane hydrocarboncompounds occurring from the normal-C6 alkane to the normal-C₃₋₈ alkanefor each of the three stress levels tested and analyzed in thelaboratory experiments discussed herein. The normal alkane compoundweight percentages were obtained as described for FIG. 7, except thateach individual normal alkane compound peak area integration was used todetermine each respective normal alkane compound weight percentage. Forclarity, the normal alkane hydrocarbon weight percentages are taken as apercentage of the entire C3 to pseudo C38 whole oil gas chromatographyareas and calculated weights as used in the pseudo compound datapresented in FIG. 7. The y-axis 2080 represents the concentration interms of weight percent of each normal-C6 to normal-C38 compound foundin the liquid phase. The x-axis 2081 contains the identity of eachnormal alkane hydrocarbon compound from normal-C6 to normal-C38. Thedata points occurring on line 2082 represent the weight percent of eachnormal-C6 to normal-C38 hydrocarbon compound for the unstressedexperiment of Example 1. The data points occurring on line 2083represent the weight percent of each normal-C6 to normal-C38 hydrocarboncompound for the 400 psi stressed experiment of Example 3. While thedata points occurring on line 2084 represent the weight percent of eachnormal-C6 to normal-C38 hydrocarbon compound for the 1,000 psi stressedexperiment of Example 4. From FIG. 11 it can be seen that thehydrocarbon liquid produced in the unstressed experiment, represented bydata points on line 2082, contains a greater weight percentage ofhydrocarbon compounds in the normal-C12 to normal-C30 compound range,both as compared to the 400 psi stress experiment hydrocarbon liquid andthe 1,000 psi stress experiment hydrocarbon liquid. Looking now at thedata points occurring on line 2083, it is apparent that the intermediatelevel 400 psi stress experiment produced a hydrocarbon liquid havingnormal-C12 to normal-C30 compound concentrations between the unstressedexperiment represented by line 2082 and the 1,000 psi stressedexperiment represented by line 2084. Lastly, it is apparent that thehigh level 1,000 psi stress experiment produced a hydrocarbon liquidhaving normal-C12 to normal-C30 compound concentrations less than boththe unstressed experiment represented by line 2082 and the 400 psistressed experiment represented by line 2083. Thus pyrolyzing oil shaleunder increasing levels of lithostatic stress appears to producehydrocarbon liquids having lower concentrations of normal alkanehydrocarbons.

FIG. 12 is a graph of the weight percent of normal alkane hydrocarboncompounds occurring from normal-C6 to normal-C38 as compared to thenormal-C20 hydrocarbon compound for each of the three stress levelstested and analyzed in the laboratory experiments discussed herein. Thenormal compound weight percentages were obtained as described for FIG.11. The y-axis 3000 represents the concentration in terms of weightratio of each normal-C6 to normal-C38 compound as compared to thenormal-C20 compound found in the liquid phase. The x-axis 3001 containsthe identity of each normal alkane hydrocarbon compound ratio fromnormal-C6/normal-C20 to normal-C38/normal-C20. The data points occurringon line 3002 represent the weight ratio of each normal-C6 to normal-C38hydrocarbon compound as compared to the normal-C20 compound for theunstressed experiment of Example 1. The data points occurring on line3003 represent the weight ratio of each normal-C6 to normal-C38hydrocarbon compound as compared to the normal-C20 compound for the 400psi stressed experiment of Example 3. While the data points occurring online 3004 represent the weight ratio of each normal-C6 to normal-C38hydrocarbon compound as compared to the normal-C20 compound for the1,000 psi stressed experiment of Example 4. From FIG. 12 it can be seenthat the hydrocarbon liquid produced in the unstressed experiment,represented by data points on line 3002, contains a lower weightpercentage of lighter normal alkane hydrocarbon components in thenormal-C6 to normal-C17 compound range as compared to the normal-C20compound and a greater weight percentage of heavier hydrocarboncomponents in the normal-C22 to normal-C34 compound range as compared tothe normal-C20 compound, both as compared to the 400 psi stressexperiment hydrocarbon liquid and the 1,000 psi stress experimenthydrocarbon liquid. Looking now at the data points occurring on line3003, it is apparent that the intermediate level 400 psi stressexperiment produced a hydrocarbon liquid having normal-C6 to normal-C17compound concentrations as compared to the normal-C20 compound betweenthe unstressed experiment represented by line 3002 and the 1,000 psistressed experiment represented by line 3004. Further, it is apparentthat the weight percentage of heavier hydrocarbon components in thenormal-C22 to normal-C34 compound range as compared to the normal-C20compound for the intermediate stress level experiment represented byline 3003 falls between the unstressed experiment (Line 3002)hydrocarbon liquid and the 1,000 psi stress experiment (Line 3004)hydrocarbon liquid. Lastly, it is apparent that the high level 1,000 psistress experiment produced a hydrocarbon liquid having normal-C6 tonormal-C17 compound concentrations as compared to the normal-C20compound greater than both the unstressed experiment represented by line3002 and the 400 psi stressed experiment represented by line 3003.Further, it is apparent that the weight percentage of heavierhydrocarbon components in the normal-C22 to normal-C34 compound range ascompared to the normal-C20 compound for the high level stress experimentrepresented by line 3004 are less than both the unstressed experiment(Line 3002) hydrocarbon liquid and the 400 psi stress experiment (Line3003) hydrocarbon liquid. This analysis further supports therelationship that pyrolizing oil shale under increasing levels oflithostatic stress produces hydrocarbon liquids having lowerconcentrations of normal alkane hydrocarbons.

FIG. 13 is a graph of the weight percent of normal alkane hydrocarboncompounds occurring from normal-C6 to normal-C38 as compared to thenormal-C25 hydrocarbon compound for each of the three stress levelstested and analyzed in the laboratory experiments discussed herein. Thenormal compound weight percentages were obtained as described for FIG.11. The y-axis 3020 represents the concentration in terms of weightratio of each normal-C6 to normal-C38 compound as compared to thenormal-C25 compound found in the liquid phase. The x-axis 3021 containsthe identity of each normal alkane hydrocarbon compound ratio fromnormal-C6/normal-C25 to normal-C38/normal-C25. The data points occurringon line 3022 represent the weight ratio of each normal-C6 to normal-C38hydrocarbon compound as compared to the normal-C25 compound for theunstressed experiment of Example 1. The data points occurring on line3023 represent the weight ratio of each normal-C6 to normal-C38hydrocarbon compound as compared to the normal-C25 compound for the 400psi stressed experiment of Example 3. While the data points occurring online 3024 represent the weight ratio of each normal-C6 to normal-C38hydrocarbon compound as compared to the normal-C25 compound for the1,000 psi stressed experiment of Example 4. From FIG. 13 it can be seenthat the hydrocarbon liquid produced in the unstressed experiment,represented by data points on line 3022, contains a lower weightpercentage of lighter normal alkane hydrocarbon components in thenormal-C6 to normal-C24 compound range as compared to the normal-C25compound and a greater weight percentage of heavier hydrocarboncomponents in the normal-C26 to normal-C30 compound range as compared tothe normal-C25 compound, both as compared to the 400 psi stressexperiment hydrocarbon liquid and the 1,000 psi stress experimenthydrocarbon liquid. Looking now at the data points occurring on line3023, it is apparent that the intermediate level 400 psi stressexperiment produced a hydrocarbon liquid having normal-C6 to normal-C24compound concentrations as compared to the normal-C25 compound betweenthe unstressed experiment represented by line 3022 and the 1,000 psistressed experiment represented by line 3024. Further, it is apparentthat the weight percentage of heavier hydrocarbon components in thenormal-C26 to normal-C30 compound range as compared to the normal-C25compound for the intermediate stress level experiment represented byline 3023 falls between the unstressed experiment (Line 3022)hydrocarbon liquid and the 1,000 psi stress experiment (Line 3024)hydrocarbon liquid. Lastly, it is apparent that the high level 1,000 psistress experiment produced a hydrocarbon liquid having normal-C6 tonormal-C24 compound concentrations as compared to the normal-C25compound greater than both the unstressed experiment represented by line3022 and the 400 psi stressed experiment represented by line 3023.Further, it is apparent that the weight percentage of heavierhydrocarbon components in the normal-C26 to normal-C30 compound range ascompared to the normal-C25 compound for the high level stress experimentrepresented by line 3024 are less than both the unstressed experiment(Line 3022) hydrocarbon liquid and the 400 psi stress experiment (Line3023) hydrocarbon liquid. This analysis further supports therelationship that pyrolizing oil shale under increasing levels oflithostatic stress produces hydrocarbon liquids having lowerconcentrations of normal alkane hydrocarbons.

FIG. 14 is a graph of the weight percent of normal alkane hydrocarboncompounds occurring from normal-C6 to normal-C38 as compared to thenormal-C29 hydrocarbon compound for each of the three stress levelstested and analyzed in the laboratory experiments discussed herein. Thenormal compound weight percentages were obtained as described for FIG.11. The y-axis 3040 represents the concentration in terms of weightratio of each normal-C6 to normal-C38 compound as compared to thenormal-C29 compound found in the liquid phase. The x-axis 3041 containsthe identity of each normal alkane hydrocarbon compound ratio fromnormal-C6/normal-C29 to normal-C38/normal-C29. The data points occurringon line 3042 represent the weight ratio of each normal-C6 to normal-C38hydrocarbon compound as compared to the normal-C29 compound for theunstressed experiment of Example 1. The data points occurring on line3043 represent the weight ratio of each normal-C6 to normal-C38hydrocarbon compound as compared to the normal-C29 compound for the 400psi stressed experiment of Example 3. While the data points occurring online 3044 represent the weight ratio of each normal-C6 to normal-C38hydrocarbon compound as compared to the normal-C29 compound for the1,000 psi stressed experiment of Example 4. From FIG. 14 it can be seenthat the hydrocarbon liquid produced in the unstressed experiment,represented by data points on line 3042, contains a lower weightpercentage of lighter normal alkane hydrocarbon components in thenormal-C6 to normal-C26 compound range as compared to the normal-C29compound, both as compared to the 400 psi stress experiment hydrocarbonliquid and the 1,000 psi stress experiment hydrocarbon liquid. Lookingnow at the data points occurring on line 3043, it is apparent that theintermediate level 400 psi stress experiment produced a hydrocarbonliquid having normal-C6 to normal-C26 compound concentrations ascompared to the normal-C29 compound between the unstressed experimentrepresented by line 3042 and the 1,000 psi stressed experimentrepresented by line 3044. Lastly, it is apparent that the high level1,000 psi stress experiment produced a hydrocarbon liquid havingnormal-C6 to normal-C26 compound concentrations as compared to thenormal-C29 compound greater than both the unstressed experimentrepresented by line 3042 and the 400 psi stressed experiment representedby line 3043. This analysis further supports the relationship thatpyrolizing oil shale under increasing levels of lithostatic stressproduces hydrocarbon liquids having lower concentrations of normalalkane hydrocarbons.

FIG. 15 is a graph of the weight ratio of normal alkane hydrocarboncompounds to pseudo components for each carbon number from C6 to C38 foreach of the three stress levels tested and analyzed in the laboratoryexperiments discussed herein. The normal compound and pseudo componentweight percentages were obtained as described for FIGS. 7 & 11. Forclarity, the normal alkane hydrocarbon and pseudo component weightpercentages are taken as a percentage of the entire C3 to pseudo C38whole oil gas chromatography areas and calculated weights as used in thepseudo compound data presented in FIG. 7. The y-axis 3060 represents theconcentration in terms of weight ratio of each normal-C6/pseudo C6 tonormal-C38/pseudo C38 compound found in the liquid phase. The x-axis3061 contains the identity of each normal alkane hydrocarbon compound topseudo component ratio from normal-C6/pseudo C6 to normal-C38/pseudoC38. The data points occurring on line 3062 represent the weight ratioof each normal-C6/pseudo C6 to normal-C38/pseudo C38 ratio for theunstressed experiment of Example 1. The data points occurring on line3063 represent the weight ratio of each normal-C6/pseudo C6 tonormal-C38/pseudo C38 ratio for the 400 psi stressed experiment ofExample 3. While the data points occurring on line 3064 represent theweight ratio of each normal-C6/pseudo C6 to normal-C38/pseudo C38 ratiofor the 1,000 psi stressed experiment of Example 4. From FIG. 15 it canbe seen that the hydrocarbon liquid produced in the unstressedexperiment, represented by data points on line 3062, contains a greaterweight percentage of normal alkane hydrocarbon compounds to pseudocomponents in the C10 to C26 range, both as compared to the 400 psistress experiment hydrocarbon liquid and the 1,000 psi stress experimenthydrocarbon liquid. Looking now at the data points occurring on line3063, it is apparent that the intermediate level 400 psi stressexperiment produced a hydrocarbon liquid having normal alkanehydrocarbon compound to pseudo component ratios in the C10 to C26 rangebetween the unstressed experiment represented by line 3062 and the 1,000psi stressed experiment represented by line 3064. Lastly, it is apparentthat the high level 1,000 psi stress experiment produced a hydrocarbonliquid having normal alkane hydrocarbon compound to pseudo componentratios in the C10 to C26 range less than both the unstressed experimentrepresented by line 3062 and the 400 psi stressed experiment representedby line 3063. Thus pyrolizing oil shale under increasing levels oflithostatic stress appears to produce hydrocarbon liquids having lowerconcentrations of normal alkane hydrocarbons as compared to the totalhydrocarbons for a given carbon number occurring between C10 and C26.

From the above-described data, it can be seen that heating and pyrolysisof oil shale under increasing levels of stress results in a condensablehydrocarbon fluid product that is lighter (i.e., greater proportion oflower carbon number compounds or components relative to higher carbonnumber compounds or components) and contains a lower concentration ofnormal alkane hydrocarbon compounds. Such a product may be suitable forrefining into gasoline and distillate products. Further, such a product,either before or after further fractionation, may have utility as a feedstock for certain chemical processes.

In some embodiments, the produced hydrocarbon fluid includes acondensable hydrocarbon portion. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have one or more of a total C7 to total C20weight ratio greater than 0.8, a total C8 to total C20 weight ratiogreater than 1.7, a total C9 to total C20 weight ratio greater than 2.5,a total C10 to total C20 weight ratio greater than 2.8, a total C11 tototal C20 weight ratio greater than 2.3, a total C12 to total C20 weightratio greater than 2.3, a total C13 to total C20 weight ratio greaterthan 2.9, a total C14 to total C20 weight ratio greater than 2.2, atotal C15 to total C20 weight ratio greater than 2.2, and a total C16 tototal C20 weight ratio greater than 1.6. In alternative embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has one or more of a total C7 to totalC20 weight ratio greater than 2.5, a total C8 to total C20 weight ratiogreater than 3.0, a total C9 to total C20 weight ratio greater than 3.5,a total C10 to total C20 weight ratio greater than 3.5, a total C11 tototal C20 weight ratio greater than 3.0, and a total C12 to total C20weight ratio greater than 3.0. In alternative embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has one or more of a total C7 to totalC20 weight ratio greater than 3.5, a total C8 to total C20 weight ratiogreater than 4.3, a total C9 to total C20 weight ratio greater than 4.5,a total C10 to total C20 weight ratio greater than 4.2, a total C11 tototal C20 weight ratio greater than 3.7, and a total C12 to total C20weight ratio greater than 3.5. As used in this paragraph and in theclaims, the phrase “one or more” followed by a listing of differentcompound or component ratios with the last ratio introduced by theconjunction “and” is meant to include a condensable hydrocarbon portionthat has at least one of the listed ratios or that has two or more, orthree or more, or four or more, etc., or all of the listed ratios.Further, a particular condensable hydrocarbon portion may also haveadditional ratios of different compounds or components that are notincluded in a particular sentence or claim and still fall within thescope of such a sentence or claim. The embodiments described in thisparagraph may be combined with any of the other aspects of the inventiondiscussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C7to total C20 weight ratio greater than 0.8. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C7 to total C20 weightratio greater than 1.0, greater than 1.5, greater than 2.0, greater than2.5, greater than 3.5 or greater than 3.7. In alternative embodiments,the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C7 to total C20weight ratio less than 10.0, less than 7.0, less than 5.0 or less than4.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a totalC8 to total C20 weight ratio greater than 1.7. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C8 to total C20 weightratio greater than 2.0, greater than 2.5, greater than 3.0, greater than4.0, greater than 4.4, or greater than 4.6. In alternative embodiments,the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C8 to total C20weight ratio less than 7.0 or less than 6.0. In some embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C9 to total C20 weight ratiogreater than 2.5. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion mayhave a total C9 to total C20 weight ratio greater than 3.0, greater than4.0, greater than 4.5, or greater than 4.7. In alternative embodiments,the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C9 to total C20weight ratio less than 7.0 or less than 6.0. In some embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C10 to total C20 weightratio greater than 2.8. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a total C10 to total C20 weight ratio greater than 3.0,greater than 3.5, greater than 4.0, or greater than 4.3. In alternativeembodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C10 tototal C20 weight ratio less than 7.0 or less than 6.0. In someembodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C11 to totalC20 weight ratio greater than 2.3. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C11 to total C20 weight ratiogreater than 2.5, greater than 3.5, greater than 3.7, greater than 4.0.In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may havea total C11 to total C20 weight ratio less than 7.0 or less than 6.0. Insome embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C12 tototal C20 weight ratio greater than 2.3. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C12 to total C20 weight ratiogreater than 2.5, greater than 3.0, greater than 3.5, or greater than3.7. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion mayhave a total C12 to total C20 weight ratio less than 7.0 or less than6.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a totalC13 to total C20 weight ratio greater than 2.9. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C13 to total C20 weightratio greater than 3.0, greater than 3.1, or greater than 3.2. Inalternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have atotal C13 to total C20 weight ratio less than 6.0 or less than 5.0. Insome embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C14 tototal C20 weight ratio greater than 2.2. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C14 to total C20 weight ratiogreater than 2.5, greater than 2.6, or greater than 2.7. In alternativeembodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C14 tototal C20 weight ratio less than 6.0 or less than 4.0. In someembodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C15 to totalC20 weight ratio greater than 2.2. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C15 to total C20 weight ratiogreater than 2.3, greater than 2.4, or greater than 2.6. In alternativeembodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C15 tototal C20 weight ratio less than 6.0 or less than 4.0. In someembodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C16 to totalC20 weight ratio greater than 1.6. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C16 to total C20 weight ratiogreater than 1.8, greater than 2.3, or greater than 2.5. In alternativeembodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C16 tototal C20 weight ratio less than 5.0 or less than 4.0. Certain featuresof the present invention are described in terms of a set of numericalupper limits (e.g. “less than”) and a set of numerical lower limits(e.g. “greater than”) in the preceding paragraph. It should beappreciated that ranges formed by any combination of these limits arewithin the scope of the invention unless otherwise indicated. Theembodiments described in this paragraph may be combined with any of theother aspects of the invention discussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have the oneor more of a total C7 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 2.0, atotal C8 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 4.5, a total C9 to totalC25 weight ratio greater than 6.5, a total C10 to total C25 weight ratiogreater than 7.5, a total C11 to total C25 weight ratio greater than6.5, a total C12 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 6.5, a total C13to total C25 weight ratio greater than 8.0, a total C14 to total C25weight ratio greater than 6.0, a total C15 to total C25 weight ratiogreater than 6.0, a total C16 to total C25 weight ratio greater than4.5, a total C17 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 4.8, and a totalC18 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 4.5. In alternativeembodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has one or more of atotal C7 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 7.0, a total C8 to totalC25 weight ratio greater than 10.0, a total C9 to total C25 weight ratiogreater than 10.0, a total C10 to total C25 weight ratio greater than10.0, a total C11 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 8.0, and atotal C12 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 8.0. In alternativeembodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has one or more of atotal C7 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 13.0, a total C8 tototal C25 weight ratio greater than 17.0, a total C9 to total C25 weightratio greater than 17.0, a total C10 to total C25 weight ratio greaterthan 15.0, a total C11 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 14.0, anda total C12 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 13.0. As used in thisparagraph and in the claims, the phrase “one or more” followed by alisting of different compound or component ratios with the last ratiointroduced by the conjunction “and” is meant to include a condensablehydrocarbon portion that has at least one of the listed ratios or thathas two or more, or three or more, or four or more, etc., or all of thelisted ratios. Further, a particular condensable hydrocarbon portion mayalso have additional ratios of different compounds or components thatare not included in a particular sentence or claim and still fall withinthe scope of such a sentence or claim. The embodiments described in thisparagraph may be combined with any of the other aspects of the inventiondiscussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C7to total C25 weight ratio greater than 2.0. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C7 to total C25 weightratio greater than 3.0, greater than 5.0, greater than 10.0, greaterthan 13.0, or greater than 15.0. In alternative embodiments, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C7 to total C25 weightratio less than 30.0 or less than 25.0. In some embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C8 to total C25 weight ratiogreater than 4.5. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion mayhave a total C8 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 5.0, greater than7.0, greater than 10.0, greater than 15.0, or greater than 17.0. Inalternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have atotal C8 to total C25 weight ratio less than 35.0, or less than 30.0. Insome embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C9 tototal C25 weight ratio greater than 6.5. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C9 to total C25 weight ratiogreater than 8.0, greater than 10.0, greater than 15.0, greater than17.0, or greater than 19.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C9 to total C25 weight ratio lessthan 40.0 or less than 35.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a total C10 to total C25 weight ratio greaterthan 7.5. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have atotal C10 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 10.0, greater than14.0, or greater than 17.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C10 to total C25 weight ratio lessthan 35.0 or less than 30.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a total C11 to total C25 weight ratio greaterthan 6.5. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have atotal C11 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 8.5, greater than 10.0,greater than 12.0, or greater than 14.0. In alternative embodiments, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C11 to total C25 weightratio less than 35.0 or less than 30.0. In some embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C12 to total C25 weightratio greater than 6.5. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a total C12 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 8.5,a total C12 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 10.0, greater than12.0, or greater than 14.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C12 to total C25 weight ratio lessthan 30.0 or less than 25.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a total C13 to total C25 weight ratio greaterthan 8.0. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have atotal C13 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 10.0, greater than12.0, or greater than 14.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C13 to total C25 weight ratio lessthan 25.0 or less than 20.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a total C14 to total C25 weight ratio greaterthan 6.0. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have atotal C14 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 8.0, greater than 10.0,or greater than 12.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C14 to total C25 weight ratio lessthan 25.0 or less than 20.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a total C15 to total C25 weight ratio greaterthan 6.0. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have atotal C15 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 8.0, or greater than10.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portionmay have a total C15 to total C25 weight ratio less than 25.0 or lessthan 20.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has atotal C16 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 4.5. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C16 to total C25 weightratio greater than 6.0, greater than 8.0, or greater than 10.0. Inalternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have atotal C16 to total C25 weight ratio less than 20.0 or less than 15.0. Insome embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C17 tototal C25 weight ratio greater than 4.8. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C17 to total C25 weight ratiogreater than 5.5 or greater than 7.0. In alternative embodiments, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C17 to total C25 weightratio less than 20.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbonportion has a total C18 to total C25 weight ratio greater than 4.5.Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C18to total C25 weight ratio greater than 5.0 or greater than 5.5. Inalternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have atotal C18 to total C25 weight ratio less than 15.0. Certain features ofthe present invention are described in terms of a set of numerical upperlimits (e.g. “less than”) and a set of numerical lower limits (e.g.“greater than”) in the preceding paragraph. It should be appreciatedthat ranges formed by any combination of these limits are within thescope of the invention unless otherwise indicated. The embodimentsdescribed in this paragraph may be combined with any of the otheraspects of the invention discussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have the oneor more of a total C7 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 3.5, atotal C8 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 9.0, a total C9 to totalC29 weight ratio greater than 12.0, a total C10 to total C29 weightratio greater than 15.0, a total C11 to total C29 weight ratio greaterthan 13.0, a total C12 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 12.5, anda total C13 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 16.0, a total C14 tototal C29 weight ratio greater than 12.0, a total C15 to total C29weight ratio greater than 12.0, a total C16 to total C29 weight ratiogreater than 9.0, a total C17 to total C29 weight ratio greater than10.0, a total C18 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 8.8, a totalC19 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 7.0, a total C20 to total C29weight ratio greater than 6.0, a total C21 to total C29 weight ratiogreater than 5.5, and a total C22 to total C29 weight ratio greater than4.2. In alternative embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion hasone or more of a total C7 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 16.0, atotal C8 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 19.0, a total C9 tototal C29 weight ratio greater than 20.0, a total C10 to total C29weight ratio greater than 18.0, a total C11 to total C29 weight ratiogreater than 16.0, a total C12 to total C29 weight ratio greater than15.0, and a total C13 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 17.0, atotal C14 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 13.0, a total C15 tototal C29 weight ratio greater than 13.0, a total C16 to total C29weight ratio greater than 10.0, a total C17 to total C29 weight ratiogreater than 11.0, a total C18 to total C29 weight ratio greater than9.0, a total C19 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 8.0, a total C20to total C29 weight ratio greater than 6.5, and a total C21 to total C29weight ratio greater than 6.0. In alternative embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has one or more of a total C7 to totalC29 weight ratio greater than 24.0, a total C8 to total C29 weight ratiogreater than 30.0, a total C9 to total C29 weight ratio greater than32.0, a total C10 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 30.0, a totalC11 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 27.0, a total C12 to totalC29 weight ratio greater than 25.0, and a total C13 to total C29 weightratio greater than 22.0, a total C14 to total C29 weight ratio greaterthan 18.0, a total C15 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 18.0, atotal C16 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 16.0, a total C17 tototal C29 weight ratio greater than 13.0, a total C18 to total C29weight ratio greater than 10.0, a total C19 to total C29 weight ratiogreater than 9.0, and a total C20 to total C29 weight ratio greater than7.0. As used in this paragraph and in the claims, the phrase “one ormore” followed by a listing of different compound or component ratioswith the last ratio introduced by the conjunction “and” is meant toinclude a condensable hydrocarbon portion that has at least one of thelisted ratios or that has two or more, or three or more, or four ormore, etc., or all of the listed ratios. Further, a particularcondensable hydrocarbon portion may also have additional ratios ofdifferent compounds or components that are not included in a particularsentence or claim and still fall within the scope of such a sentence orclaim. The embodiments described in this paragraph may be combined withany of the other aspects of the invention discussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C7to total C29 weight ratio greater than 3.5. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C7 to total C29 weightratio greater than 5.0, greater than 10.0, greater than 18.0, greaterthan 20.0, or greater than 24.0. In alternative embodiments, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C7 to total C29 weightratio less than 60.0 or less than 50.0. In some embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C8 to total C29 weight ratiogreater than 9.0. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion mayhave a total C8 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 10.0, greaterthan 18.0, greater than 20.0, greater than 25.0, or greater than 30.0.In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may havea total C8 to total C29 weight ratio less than 85.0 or less than 75.0.In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C9to total C29 weight ratio greater than 12.0. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C9 to total C29 weightratio greater than 15.0, greater than 20.0, greater than 23.0, greaterthan 27.0, or greater than 32.0. In alternative embodiments, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C9 to total C29 weightratio less than 85.0 or less than 75.0. In some embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C10 to total C29 weightratio greater than 15.0. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a total C10 to total C29 weight ratio greater than18.0, greater than 22.0, or greater than 28.0. In alternativeembodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C10 tototal C29 weight ratio less than 80.0 or less than 70.0. In someembodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C11 to totalC29 weight ratio greater than 13.0. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C11 to total C29 weight ratiogreater than 16.0, greater than 18.0, greater than 24.0, or greater than27.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portionmay have a total C11 to total C29 weight ratio less than 75.0 or lessthan 65.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has atotal C12 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 12.5. Alternatively,the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C12 to total C29weight ratio greater than 14.5, greater than 18.0, greater than 22.0, orgreater than 25.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C12 to total C29 weight ratio lessthan 75.0 or less than 65.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a total C13 to total C29 weight ratio greaterthan 16.0. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have atotal C13 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 18.0, greater than20.0, or greater than 22.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C13 to total C29 weight ratio lessthan 70.0 or less than 60.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a total C14 to total C29 weight ratio greaterthan 12.0. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have atotal C14 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 14.0, greater than16.0, or greater than 18.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C14 to total C29 weight ratio lessthan 60.0 or less than 50.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a total C15 to total C29 weight ratio greaterthan 12.0. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have atotal C15 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 15.0 or greater than18.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portionmay have a total C15 to total C29 weight ratio less than 60.0 or lessthan 50.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has atotal C16 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 9.0. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C16 to total C29 weightratio greater than 10.0, greater than 13.0, or greater than 16.0. Inalternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have atotal C16 to total C29 weight ratio less than 55.0 or less than 45.0. Insome embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C17 tototal C29 weight ratio greater than 10.0. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C17 to total C29 weight ratiogreater than 11.0 or greater than 12.0. In alternative embodiments, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C17 to total C29 weightratio less than 45.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbonportion has a total C18 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 8.8.Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C18to total C29 weight ratio greater than 9.0 or greater than 10.0. Inalternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have atotal C18 to total C29 weight ratio less than 35.0. In some embodimentsthe condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C19 to total C29 weightratio greater than 7.0. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a total C19 to total C29 weight ratio greater than 8.0or greater than 9.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C19 to total C29 weight ratio lessthan 30.0. Certain features of the present invention are described interms of a set of numerical upper limits (e.g. “less than”) and a set ofnumerical lower limits (e.g. “greater than”) in the preceding paragraph.It should be appreciated that ranges formed by any combination of theselimits are within the scope of the invention unless otherwise indicated.The embodiments described in this paragraph may be combined with any ofthe other aspects of the invention discussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have the oneor more of a total C9 to total C20 weight ratio between 2.5 and 6.0, atotal C10 to total C20 weight ratio between 2.8 and 7.3, a total C11 tototal C20 weight ratio between 2.6 and 6.5, a total C12 to total C20weight ratio between 2.6 and 6.4 and a total C13 to total C20 weightratio between 3.2 and 8.0. In alternative embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has one or more of a total C9 to total C20 weightratio between 3.0 and 5.5, a total C10 to total C20 weight ratio between3.2 and 7.0, a total C11 to total C20 weight ratio between 3.0 and 6.0,a total C12 to total C20 weight ratio between 3.0 and 6.0, and a totalC13 to total C20 weight ratio between 3.3 and 7.0. In alternativeembodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has one or more of atotal C9 to total C20 weight ratio between 4.6 and 5.5, a total C10 tototal C20 weight ratio between 4.2 and 7.0, a total C11 to total C20weight ratio between 3.7 and 6.0, a total C12 to total C20 weight ratiobetween 3.6 and 6.0, and a total C13 to total C20 weight ratio between3.4 and 7.0. As used in this paragraph and in the claims, the phrase“one or more” followed by a listing of different compound or componentratios with the last ratio introduced by the conjunction “and” is meantto include a condensable hydrocarbon portion that has at least one ofthe listed ratios or that has two or more, or three or more, or four ormore, etc., or all of the listed ratios. Further, a particularcondensable hydrocarbon portion may also have additional ratios ofdifferent compounds or components that are not included in a particularsentence or claim and still fall within the scope of such a sentence orclaim. The embodiments described in this paragraph may be combined withany of the other aspects of the invention discussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C9to total C20 weight ratio between 2.5 and 6.0. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C9 to total C20 weightratio between 3.0 and 5.8, between 3.5 and 5.8, between 4.0 and 5.8,between 4.5 and 5.8, between 4.6 and 5.8, or between 4.7 and 5.8. Insome embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C10 tototal C20 weight ratio between 2.8 and 7.3. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C10 to total C20 weightratio between 3.0 and 7.2, between 3.5 and 7.0, between 4.0 and 7.0,between 4.2 and 7.0, between 4.3 and 7.0, or between 4.4 and 7.0. Insome embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C11 tototal C20 weight ratio between 2.6 and 6.5. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C11 to total C20 weightratio between 2.8 and 6.3, between 3.5 and 6.3, between 3.7 and 6.3,between 3.8 and 6.3, between 3.9 and 6.2, or between 4.0 and 6.2. Insome embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C12 tototal C20 weight ratio between 2.6 and 6.4. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C12 to total C20 weightratio between 2.8 and 6.2, between 3.2 and 6.2, between 3.5 and 6.2,between 3.6 and 6.2, between 3.7 and 6.0, or between 3.8 and 6.0. Insome embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C13 tototal C20 weight ratio between 3.2 and 8.0. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C13 to total C20 weightratio between 3.3 and 7.8, between 3.3 and 7.0, between 3.4 and 7.0,between 3.5 and 6.5, or between 3.6 and 6.0. The embodiments describedin this paragraph may be combined with any of the other aspects of theinvention discussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have one ormore of a total C10 to total C25 weight ratio between 7.1 and 24.5, atotal C11 to total C25 weight ratio between 6.5 and 22.0, a total C12 tototal C25 weight ratio between 6.5 and 22.0, and a total C13 to totalC25 weight ratio between 8.0 and 27.0. In alternative embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has one or more of a total C10 to totalC25 weight ratio between 10.0 and 24.0, a total C11 to total C25 weightratio between 10.0 and 21.5, a total C12 to total C25 weight ratiobetween 10.0 and 21.5, and a total C13 to total C25 weight ratio between9.0 and 25.0. In alternative embodiments the condensable hydrocarbonportion has one or more of a total C10 to total C25 weight ratio between14.0 and 24.0, a total C11 to total C25 weight ratio between 12.5 and21.5, a total C12 to total C25 weight ratio between 12.0 and 21.5, and atotal C13 to total C25 weight ratio between 10.5 and 25.0. As used inthis paragraph and in the claims, the phrase “one or more” followed by alisting of different compound or component ratios with the last ratiointroduced by the conjunction “and” is meant to include a condensablehydrocarbon portion that has at least one of the listed ratios or thathas two or more, or three or more, or four or more, etc., or all of thelisted ratios. Further, a particular condensable hydrocarbon portion mayalso have additional ratios of different compounds or components thatare not included in a particular sentence or claim and still fall withinthe scope of such a sentence or claim. The embodiments described in thisparagraph may be combined with any of the other aspects of the inventiondiscussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C10to total C25 weight ratio between 7.1 and 24.5. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C10 to total C25 weightratio between 7.5 and 24.5, between 12.0 and 24.5, between 13.8 and24.5, between 14.0 and 24.5, or between 15.0 and 24.5. In someembodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C11 to totalC25 weight ratio between 6.5 and 22.0. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C11 to total C25 weight ratiobetween 7.0 and 21.5, between 10.0 and 21.5, between 12.5 and 21.5,between 13.0 and 21.5, between 13.7 and 21.5, or between 14.5 and 21.5.In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C12to total C25 weight ratio between 10.0 and 21.5. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C12 to total C25 weightratio between 10.5 and 21.0, between 11.0 and 21.0, between 12.0 and21.0, between 12.5 and 21.0, between 13.0 and 21.0, or between 13.5 and21.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has atotal C13 to total C25 weight ratio between 8.0 and 27.0. Alternatively,the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C13 to total C25weight ratio between 9.0 and 26.0, between 10.0 and 25.0, between 10.5and 25.0, between 11.0 and 25.0, or between 11.5 and 25.0. Theembodiments described in this paragraph may be combined with any of theother aspects of the invention discussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have one ormore of a total C10 to total C29 weight ratio between 15.0 and 60.0, atotal C11 to total C29 weight ratio between 13.0 and 54.0, a total C12to total C29 weight ratio between 12.5 and 53.0, and a total C13 tototal C29 weight ratio between 16.0 and 65.0. In alternative embodimentsthe condensable hydrocarbon portion has one or more of a total C10 tototal C29 weight ratio between 17.0 and 58.0, a total C11 to total C29weight ratio between 15.0 and 52.0, a total C12 to total C29 weightratio between 14.0 and 50.0, and a total C13 to total C29 weight ratiobetween 17.0 and 60.0. In alternative embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has one or more of a total C10 to total C29 weightratio between 20.0 and 58.0, a total C11 to total C29 weight ratiobetween 18.0 and 52.0, a total C12 to total C29 weight ratio between18.0 and 50.0, and a total C13 to total C29 weight ratio between 18.0and 50.0. As used in this paragraph and in the claims, the phrase “oneor more” followed by a listing of different compound or component ratioswith the last ratio introduced by the conjunction “and” is meant toinclude a condensable hydrocarbon portion that has at least one of thelisted ratios or that has two or more, or three or more, or four ormore, etc., or all of the listed ratios. Further, a particularcondensable hydrocarbon portion may also have additional ratios ofdifferent compounds or components that are not included in a particularsentence or claim and still fall within the scope of such a sentence orclaim. The embodiments described in this paragraph may be combined withany of the other aspects of the invention discussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C10to total C29 weight ratio between 15.0 and 60.0. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C10 to total C29 weightratio between 18.0 and 58.0, between 20.0 and 58.0, between 24.0 and58.0, between 27.0 and 58.0, or between 30.0 and 58.0. In someembodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C11 to totalC29 weight ratio between 13.0 and 54.0. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a total C11 to total C29 weight ratiobetween 15.0 and 53.0, between 18.0 and 53.0, between 20.0 and 53.0,between 22.0 and 53.0, between 25.0 and 53.0, or between 27.0 and 53.0.In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a total C12to total C29 weight ratio between 12.5 and 53.0. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C12 to total C29 weightratio between 14.5 and 51.0, between 16.0 and 51.0, between 18.0 and51.0, between 20.0 and 51.0, between 23.0 and 51.0, or between 25.0 and51.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has atotal C13 to total C29 weight ratio between 16.0 and 65.0.Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a total C13to total C29 weight ratio between 17.0 and 60.0, between 18.0 and 60.0,between 20.0 and 60.0, between 22.0 and 60.0, or between 25.0 and 60.0.The embodiments described in this paragraph may be combined with any ofthe other aspects of the invention discussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have one ormore of a normal-C7 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than 0.9, anormal-C8 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than 2.0, a normal-C9 tonormal-C20 weight ratio greater than 1.9, a normal-C10 to normal-C20weight ratio greater than 2.2, a normal-C11 to normal-C20 weight ratiogreater than 1.9, a normal-C12 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than1.9, a normal-C13 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than 2.3, anormal-C14 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than 1.8, a normal-C15 tonormal-C20 weight ratio greater than 1.8, and normal-C16 to normal-C20weight ratio greater than 1.3. In alternative embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has one or more of a normal-C7 tonormal-C20 weight ratio greater than 4.4, a normal-C8 to normal-C20weight ratio greater than 3.7, a normal-C9 to normal-C20 weight ratiogreater than 3.5, a normal-C10 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than3.4, a normal-C11 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than 3.0, and anormal-C12 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than 2.7. In alternativeembodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has one or more of anormal-C7 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than 4.9, a normal-C8 tonormal-C20 weight ratio greater than 4.5, a normal-C9 to normal-C20weight ratio greater than 4.4, a normal-C10 to normal-C20 weight ratiogreater than 4.1, a normal-C11 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than3.7, and a normal-C12 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than 3.0. Asused in this paragraph and in the claims, the phrase “one or more”followed by a listing of different compound or component ratios with thelast ratio introduced by the conjunction “and” is meant to include acondensable hydrocarbon portion that has at least one of the listedratios or that has two or more, or three or more, or four or more, etc.,or all of the listed ratios. Further, a particular condensablehydrocarbon portion may also have additional ratios of differentcompounds or components that are not included in a particular sentenceor claim and still fall within the scope of such a sentence or claim.The embodiments described in this paragraph may be combined with any ofthe other aspects of the invention discussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C7to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than 0.9. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C7 to normal-C20weight ratio greater than 1.0, than 2.0, greater than 3.0, greater than4.0, greater than 4.5, or greater than 5.0. In alternative embodiments,the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C7 to normal-C20weight ratio less than 8.0 or less than 7.0. In some embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C8 to normal-C20 weightratio greater than 1.7. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C8 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than2.0, greater than 2.5, greater than 3.0, greater than 3.5, greater than4.0, or greater than 4.4. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C8 to normal-C20 weight ratio lessthan 8.0 or less than 7.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C9 to normal-C20 weight ratio greaterthan 1.9. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C9 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than 2.0, greater than 3.0,greater than 4.0, or greater than 4.5. In alternative embodiments, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C9 to normal-C20weight ratio less than 7.0 or less than 6.0. In some embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C10 to normal-C20 weightratio greater than 2.2. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C10 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than2.8, greater than 3.3, greater than 3.5, or greater than 4.0. Inalternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C10 to normal-C20 weight ratio less than 7.0 or less than 6.0. Insome embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C11 tonormal-C20 weight ratio greater than 1.9. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C11 to normal-C20 weight ratiogreater than 2.5, greater than 3.0, greater than 3.5, or greater than3.7. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion mayhave a normal-C11 to normal-C20 weight ratio less than 7.0 or less than6.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has anormal-C12 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than 1.9. Alternatively,the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C12 to normal-C20weight ratio greater than 2.0, greater than 2.2, greater than 2.6, orgreater than 3.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C12 to normal-C20 weight ratioless than 7.0 or less than 6.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C13 to normal-C20 weight ratio greaterthan 2.3. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C13 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than 2.5, greater than2.7, or greater than 3.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C13 to normal-C20 weight ratioless than 6.0 or less than 5.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C14 to normal-C20 weight ratio greaterthan 1.8. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C14 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than 2.0, greater than2.2, or greater than 2.5. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C14 to normal-C20 weight ratioless than 6.0 or less than 4.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C15 to normal-C20 weight ratio greaterthan 1.8. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C15 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than 2.0, greater than2.2, or greater than 2.4. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C15 to normal-C20 weight ratioless than 6.0 or less than 4.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C16 to normal-C20 weight ratio greaterthan 1.3. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C16 to normal-C20 weight ratio greater than 1.5, greater than1.7, or greater than 2.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C16 to normal-C20 weight ratioless than 5.0 or less than 4.0. Certain features of the presentinvention are described in terms of a set of numerical upper limits(e.g. “less than”) and a set of numerical lower limits (e.g. “greaterthan”) in the preceding paragraph. It should be appreciated that rangesformed by any combination of these limits are within the scope of theinvention unless otherwise indicated. The embodiments described in thisparagraph may be combined with any of the other aspects of the inventiondiscussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have one ormore of a normal-C7 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 1.9, anormal-C8 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 3.9, a normal-C9 tonormal-C25 weight ratio greater than 3.7, a normal-C10 to normal-C25weight ratio greater than 4.4, a normal-C11 to normal-C25 weight ratiogreater than 3.8, a normal-C12 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than3.7, a normal-C13 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 4.7, anormal-C14 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 3.7, a normal-C15 tonormal-C25 weight ratio greater than 3.7, a normal-C16 to normal-C25weight ratio greater than 2.5, a normal-C17 to normal-C25 weight ratiogreater than 3.0, and a normal-C18 to normal-C25 weight ratio greaterthan 3.4. In alternative embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portionhas one or more of a normal-C7 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than10, a normal-C8 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 8.0, a normal-C9to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 7.0, a normal-C10 to normal-C25weight ratio greater than 7.0, a normal-C11 to normal-C25 weight ratiogreater than 7.0, and a normal-C12 to normal-C25 weight ratio greaterthan 6.0. In alternative embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portionhas one or more of a normal-C7 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than10.0, a normal-C8 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 12.0, anormal-C9 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 11.0, a normal-C10 tonormal-C25 weight ratio greater than 11.0, a normal-C11 to normal-C25weight ratio greater than 9.0, and a normal-C12 to normal-C25 weightratio greater than 8.0. As used in this paragraph and in the claims, thephrase “one or more” followed by a listing of different compound orcomponent ratios with the last ratio introduced by the conjunction “and”is meant to include a condensable hydrocarbon portion that has at leastone of the listed ratios or that has two or more, or three or more, orfour or more, etc., or all of the listed ratios. Further, a particularcondensable hydrocarbon portion may also have additional ratios ofdifferent compounds or components that are not included in a particularsentence or claim and still fall within the scope of such a sentence orclaim. The embodiments described in this paragraph may be combined withany of the other aspects of the invention discussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C7to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 1.9. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C7 to normal-C25weight ratio greater than 3.0, greater than 5.0, greater than 8.0,greater than 10.0, or greater than 13.0. In alternative embodiments, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C7 to normal-C25weight ratio less than 35.0 or less than 25.0. In some embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C8 to normal-C25 weightratio greater than 3.9. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C8 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than4.5, greater than 6.0, greater than 8.0, greater than 10.0, or greaterthan 13.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C8 to normal-C25 weight ratio less than 35.0or less than 25.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbonportion has a normal-C9 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 3.7.Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C9to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 4.5, greater than 7.0, greaterthan 10.0, greater than 12.0, or greater than 13.0. In alternativeembodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C9 tonormal-C25 weight ratio less than 35.0 or less than 25.0. In someembodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C10 tonormal-C25 weight ratio greater than 4.4. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C10 to normal-C25 weight ratiogreater than 6.0, greater than 8.0, or greater than 11.0. In alternativeembodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C10to normal-C25 weight ratio less than 35.0 or less than 25.0. In someembodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C11 tonormal-C25 weight ratio greater than 3.8. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C11 to normal-C25 weight ratiogreater than 4.5, greater than 7.0, greater than 8.0, or greater than10.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portionmay have a normal-C11 to normal-C25 weight ratio less than 35.0 or lessthan 25.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has anormal-C12 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 3.7. Alternatively,the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C12 to normal-C25weight ratio greater than 4.5, greater than 6.0, greater than 7.0, orgreater than 8.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C12 to normal-C25 weight ratioless than 30.0 or less than 20.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C13 to normal-C25 weight ratio greaterthan 4.7. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C13 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 5.0, greater than6.0, or greater than 7.5. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C13 to normal-C25 weight ratioless than 25.0 or less than 20.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C14 to normal-C25 weight ratio greaterthan 3.7. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C14 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 4.5, greater than5.5, or greater than 7.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C14 to normal-C25 weight ratioless than 25.0 or less than 20.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C15 to normal-C25 weight ratio greaterthan 3.7. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C15 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 4.2 or greater than5.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion mayhave a normal-C15 to normal-C25 weight ratio less than 25.0 or less than20.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has anormal-C16 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 2.5. Alternatively,the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C16 to normal-C25weight ratio greater than 3.0, greater than 4.0, or greater than 5.0. Inalternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C16 to normal-C25 weight ratio less than 20.0 or less than 15.0.In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C17to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than 3.0. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C17 to normal-C25weight ratio greater than 3.5 or greater than 4.0. In alternativeembodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C17to normal-C25 weight ratio less than 20.0. In some embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C18 to normal-C25 weightratio greater than 3.4. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C18 to normal-C25 weight ratio greater than3.6 or greater than 4.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C18 to normal-C25 weight ratioless than 15.0. Certain features of the present invention are describedin terms of a set of numerical upper limits (e.g. “less than”) and a setof numerical lower limits (e.g. “greater than”) in the precedingparagraph. It should be appreciated that ranges formed by anycombination of these limits are within the scope of the invention unlessotherwise indicated. The embodiments described in this paragraph may becombined with any of the other aspects of the invention discussedherein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have one ormore of a normal-C7 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 18.0, anormal-C8 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 16.0, a normal-C9 tonormal-C29 weight ratio greater than 14.0, a normal-C10 to normal-C29weight ratio greater than 14.0, a normal-C11 to normal-C29 weight ratiogreater than 13.0, a normal-C12 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than11.0, a normal-C13 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 10.0, anormal-C14 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 9.0, a normal-C15 tonormal-C29 weight ratio greater than 8.0, a normal-C16 to normal-C29weight ratio greater than 8.0, a normal-C17 to normal-C29 weight ratiogreater than 6.0, a normal-C18 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than6.0, a normal-C19 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 5.0, anormal-C20 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 4.0, a normal-C21 tonormal-C29 weight ratio greater than 3.6, and a normal-C22 to normal-C29weight ratio greater than 2.8. In alternative embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has one or more of a normal-C7 tonormal-C29 weight ratio greater than 20.0, a normal-C8 to normal-C29weight ratio greater than 18.0, a normal-C9 to normal-C29 weight ratiogreater than 17.0, a normal-C10 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than16.0, a normal-C11 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 15.0, anormal-C12 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 12.5, a normal-C13 tonormal-C29 weight ratio greater than 11.0, a normal-C14 to normal-C29weight ratio greater than 10.0, a normal-C15 to normal-C29 weight ratiogreater than 8.0, a normal-C16 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than8.0, a normal-C17 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 7.0, anormal-C18 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 6.5, a normal-C19 tonormal-C29 weight ratio greater than 5.5, a normal-C20 to normal-C29weight ratio greater than 4.5, and a normal-C21 to normal-C29 weightratio greater than 4.0. In alternative embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has one or more of a normal-C7 to normal-C29 weightratio greater than 23.0, a normal-C8 to normal-C29 weight ratio greaterthan 21.0, a normal-C9 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 20.0, anormal-C10 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 19.0, a normal-C11 tonormal-C29 weight ratio greater than 17.0, a normal-C12 to normal-C29weight ratio greater than 14.0, a normal-C13 to normal-C29 weight ratiogreater than 12.0, a normal-C14 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than11.0, a normal-C15 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 9.0, anormal-C16 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 9.0, a normal-C17 tonormal-C29 weight ratio greater than 7.5, a normal-C18 to normal-C29weight ratio greater than 7.0, a normal-C19 to normal-C29 weight ratiogreater than 6.5, a normal-C20 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than4.8, and a normal-C21 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 4.5. Asused in this paragraph and in the claims, the phrase “one or more”followed by a listing of different compound or component ratios with thelast ratio introduced by the conjunction “and” is meant to include acondensable hydrocarbon portion that has at least one of the listedratios or that has two or more, or three or more, or four or more, etc.,or all of the listed ratios. Further, a particular condensablehydrocarbon portion may also have additional ratios of differentcompounds or components that are not included in a particular sentenceor claim and still fall within the scope of such a sentence or claim.The embodiments described in this paragraph may be combined with any ofthe other aspects of the invention discussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C7to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 18.0. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C7 to normal-C29weight ratio greater than 20.0, greater than 22.0, greater than 25.0,greater than 30.0, or greater than 35.0. In alternative embodiments, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C7 to normal-C29weight ratio less than 70.0 or less than 60.0. In some embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C8 to normal-C29 weightratio greater than 16.0. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C8 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than18.0, greater than 22.0, greater than 25.0, greater than 27.0, orgreater than 30.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C8 to normal-C29 weight ratio lessthan 85.0 or less than 75.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C9 to normal-C29 weight ratio greaterthan 14.0. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C9 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 18.0, greater than20.0, greater than 23.0, greater than 27.0, or greater than 30.0. Inalternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C9 to normal-C29 weight ratio less than 85.0 or less than 75.0.In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C10to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 14.0. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C10 to normal-C29weight ratio greater than 20.0, greater than 25.0, or greater than 30.0.In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may havea normal-C10 to normal-C29 weight ratio less than 80.0 or less than70.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has anormal-C11 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 13.0. Alternatively,the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C11 to normal-C29weight ratio greater than 16.0, greater than 18.0, greater than 24.0, orgreater than 27.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C11 to normal-C29 weight ratioless than 75.0 or less than 65.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C12 to normal-C29 weight ratio greaterthan 11.0. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C12 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 14.5, greater than18.0, greater than 22.0, or greater than 25.0. In alternativeembodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C12to normal-C29 weight ratio less than 75.0 or less than 65.0. In someembodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C13 tonormal-C29 weight ratio greater than 10.0. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C13 to normal-C29weight ratio greater than 18.0, greater than 20.0, or greater than 22.0.In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may havea normal-C13 to normal-C29 weight ratio less than 70.0 or less than60.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has anormal-C14 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 9.0. Alternatively,the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C14 to normal-C29weight ratio greater than 14.0, greater than 16.0, or greater than 18.0.In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may havea normal-C14 to normal-C29 weight ratio less than 60.0 or less than50.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has anormal-C15 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 8.0. Alternatively,the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C15 to normal-C29weight ratio greater than 12.0 or greater than 16.0. In alternativeembodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C15to normal-C29 weight ratio less than 60.0 or less than 50.0. In someembodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C16 tonormal-C29 weight ratio greater than 8.0. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C16 to normal-C29 weight ratiogreater than 10.0, greater than 13.0, or greater than 15.0. Inalternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C16 to normal-C29 weight ratio less than 55.0 or less than 45.0.In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C17to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 6.0. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C17 to normal-C29weight ratio greater than 8.0 or greater than 12.0. In alternativeembodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C17to normal-C29 weight ratio less than 45.0. In some embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C18 to normal-C29 weightratio greater than 6.0. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C18 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than8.0 or greater than 10.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C18 to normal-C29 weight ratioless than 35.0. In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portionhas a normal-C19 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 5.0.Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C19to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 7.0 or greater than 9.0. Inalternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C19 to normal-C29 weight ratio less than 30.0. In someembodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C20 tonormal-C29 weight ratio greater than 4.0. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C20 to normal-C29 weight ratiogreater than 6.0 or greater than 8.0. In alternative embodiments, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C20 to normal-C29weight ratio less than 30.0. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C21 to normal-C29 weight ratio greaterthan 3.6. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C21 to normal-C29 weight ratio greater than 4.0 or greater than6.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbon portion mayhave a normal-C21 to normal-C29 weight ratio less than 30.0. In someembodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C22 tonormal-C29 weight ratio greater than 2.8. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C22 to normal-C29 weight ratiogreater than 3.0. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C22 to normal-C29 weight ratioless than 30.0. Certain features of the present invention are describedin terms of a set of numerical upper limits (e.g. “less than”) and a setof numerical lower limits (e.g. “greater than”) in the precedingparagraph. It should be appreciated that ranges formed by anycombination of these limits are within the scope of the invention unlessotherwise indicated. The embodiments described in this paragraph may becombined with any of the other aspects of the invention discussedherein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have one ormore of a normal-C10 to total C10 weight ratio less than 0.31, anormal-C11 to total C11 weight ratio less than 0.32, a normal-C12 tototal C12 weight ratio less than 0.29, a normal-C13 to total C13 weightratio less than 0.28, a normal-C14 to total C14 weight ratio less than0.31, a normal-C15 to total C15 weight ratio less than 0.27, anormal-C16 to total C16 weight ratio less than 0.31, a normal-C17 tototal C17 weight ratio less than 0.31, a normal-C18 to total C18 weightratio less than 0.37, normal-C19 to total C19 weight ratio less than0.37, a normal-C20 to total C20 weight ratio less than 0.37, anormal-C21 to total C21 weight ratio less than 0.37, a normal-C22 tototal C22 weight ratio less than 0.38, normal-C23 to total C23 weightratio less than 0.43, a normal-C24 to total C24 weight ratio less than0.48, and a normal-C25 to total C25 weight ratio less than 0.53. Inalternative embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has one ormore of a normal-C11 to total C11 weight ratio less than 0.30, anormal-C12 to total C12 weight ratio less than 0.27, a normal-C13 tototal C13 weight ratio less than 0.26, a normal-C14 to total C14 weightratio less than 0.29, a normal-C15 to total C15 weight ratio less than0.24, a normal-C16 to total C16 weight ratio less than 0.25, anormal-C17 to total C17 weight ratio less than 0.29, a normal-C18 tototal C18 weight ratio less than 0.31, normal-C19 to total C19 weightratio less than 0.35, a normal-C20 to total C20 weight ratio less than0.33, a normal-C21 to total C21 weight ratio less than 0.33, anormal-C22 to total C22 weight ratio less than 0.35, normal-C23 to totalC23 weight ratio less than 0.40, a normal-C24 to total C24 weight ratioless than 0.45, and a normal-C25 to total C25 weight ratio less than0.49. In alternative embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion hasone or more of a normal-C11 to total C11 weight ratio less than 0.28, anormal-C12 to total C12 weight ratio less than 0.25, a normal-C13 tototal C13 weight ratio less than 0.24, a normal-C14 to total C14 weightratio less than 0.27, a normal-C15 to total C15 weight ratio less than0.22, a normal-C16 to total C16 weight ratio less than 0.23, anormal-C17 to total C17 weight ratio less than 0.25, a normal-C18 tototal C18 weight ratio less than 0.28, normal-C19 to total C19 weightratio less than 0.31, a normal-C20 to total C20 weight ratio less than0.29, a normal-C21 to total C21 weight ratio less than 0.30, anormal-C22 to total C22 weight ratio less than 0.28, normal-C23 to totalC23 weight ratio less than 0.33, a normal-C24 to total C24 weight ratioless than 0.40, and a normal-C25 to total C25 weight ratio less than0.45. As used in this paragraph and in the claims, the phrase “one ormore” followed by a listing of different compound or component ratioswith the last ratio introduced by the conjunction “and” is meant toinclude a condensable hydrocarbon portion that has at least one of thelisted ratios or that has two or more, or three or more, or four ormore, etc., or all of the listed ratios. Further, a particularcondensable hydrocarbon portion may also have additional ratios ofdifferent compounds or components that are not included in a particularsentence or claim and still fall within the scope of such a sentence orclaim. The embodiments described in this paragraph may be combined withany of the other aspects of the invention discussed herein.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C10to total C10 weight ratio less than 0.31. Alternatively, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C10 to total C10 weight ratio lessthan 0.30 or less than 0.29. In alternative embodiments, the condensablehydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C10 to total C10 weight ratiogreater than 0.15 or greater than 0.20. In some embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C11 to total C11 weightratio less than 0.32. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portionmay have a normal-C11 to total C11 weight ratio less than 0.31, lessthan 0.30, or less than 0.29. In alternative embodiments, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a normal-C11 to total C11weight ratio greater than 0.15 or greater than 0.20. In some embodimentsthe condensable hydrocarbon portion has a normal-C12 to total C12 weightratio less than 0.29. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portionmay have a normal-C12 to total C12 weight ratio less than 0.26, or lessthan 0.24. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C12 to total C12 weight ratio greater than0.10 or greater than 0.15. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C13 to total C13 weight ratio less than0.28. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C13 to total C13 weight ratio less than 0.27, less than 0.25, orless than 0.23. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C13 to total C13 weight ratio greater than0.10 or greater than 0.15. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C14 to total C14 weight ratio less than0.31. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C14 to total C14 weight ratio less than 0.30, less than 0.28, orless than 0.26. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C14 to total C14 weight ratio greater than0.10 or greater than 0.15. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C15 to total C15 weight ratio less than0.27. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C15 to total C15 weight ratio less than 0.26, less than 0.24, orless than 0.22. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C15 to total C15 weight ratio greater than0.10 or greater than 0.15. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C16 to total C16 weight ratio less than0.31. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C16 to total C16 weight ratio less than 0.29, less than 0.26, orless than 0.24. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C16 to total C16 weight ratio greater than0.10 or greater than 0.15. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C17 to total C17 weight ratio less than0.31. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C17 to total C17 weight ratio less than 0.29, less than 0.27, orless than 0.25. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C17 to total C17 weight ratio greater than0.10 or greater than 0.15. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C18 to total C18 weight ratio less than0.37. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C18 to total C18 weight ratio less than 0.35, less than 0.31, orless than 0.28. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C18 to total C18 weight ratio greater than0.10 or greater than 0.15. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C19 to total C19 weight ratio less than0.37. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C19 to total C19 weight ratio less than 0.36, less than 0.34, orless than 0.31. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C19 to total C19 weight ratio greater than0.10 or greater than 0.15. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C20 to total C20 weight ratio less than0.37. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C20 to total C20 weight ratio less than 0.35, less than 0.32, orless than 0.29. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C20 to total C20 weight ratio greater than0.10 or greater than 0.15. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C21 to total C21 weight ratio less than0.37. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C21 to total C21 weight ratio less than 0.35, less than 0.32, orless than 0.30. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C21 to total C21 weight ratio greater than0.10 or greater than 0.15. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C22 to total C22 weight ratio less than0.38. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C22 to total C22 weight ratio less than 0.36, less than 0.34, orless than 0.30. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C22 to total C22 weight ratio greater than0.10 or greater than 0.15. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C23 to total C23 weight ratio less than0.43. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C23 to total C23 weight ratio less than 0.40, less than 0.35, orless than 0.29. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C23 to total C23 weight ratio greater than0.15 or greater than 0.20. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C24 to total C24 weight ratio less than0.48. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C24 to total C24 weight ratio less than 0.46, less than 0.42, orless than 0.40. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C24 to total C24 weight ratio greater than0.15 or greater than 0.20. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a normal-C25 to total C25 weight ratio less than0.48. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have anormal-C25 to total C25 weight ratio less than 0.46, less than 0.42, orless than 0.40. In alternative embodiments, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a normal-C25 to total C25 weight ratio greater than0.20 or greater than 0.25. Certain features of the present invention aredescribed in terms of a set of numerical upper limits (e.g. “less than”)and a set of numerical lower limits (e.g. “greater than”) in thepreceding paragraph. It should be appreciated that ranges formed by anycombination of these limits are within the scope of the invention unlessotherwise indicated. The embodiments described in this paragraph may becombined with any of the other aspects of the invention discussedherein.

The use of “total C_” (e.g., total C10) herein and in the claims ismeant to refer to the amount of a particular pseudo component found in acondensable hydrocarbon fluid determined as described herein,particularly as described in the section labeled “Experiments” herein.That is “total C_” is determined using the whole oil gas chromatography(WOGC) analysis methodology according to the procedure described in theExperiments section of this application. Further, “total C_” isdetermined from the whole oil gas chromatography (WOGC) peak integrationmethodology and peak identification methodology used for identifying andquantifying each pseudo-component as described in the Experimentssection herein. Further, “total C_” weight percent and mole percentvalues for the pseudo components were obtained using the pseudocomponent analysis methodology involving correlations developed by Katzand Firoozabadi (Katz, D. L., and A. Firoozabadi, 1978. Predicting phasebehavior of condensate/crude-oil systems using methane interactioncoefficients, J. Petroleum Technology (November 1978), 1649-1655) asdescribed in the Experiments section, including the exemplary molar andweight percentage determinations.

The use of “normal-C_” (e.g., normal-C10) herein and in the claims ismeant to refer to the amount of a particular normal alkane hydrocarboncompound found in a condensable hydrocarbon fluid determined asdescribed herein, particularly in the section labeled “Experiments”herein. That is “normal-C_” is determined from the GC peak areasdetermined using the whole oil gas chromatography (WOGC) analysismethodology according to the procedure described in the Experimentssection of this application. Further, “total C_” is determined from thewhole oil gas chromatography (WOGC) peak identification and integrationmethodology used for identifying and quantifying individual compoundpeaks as described in the Experiments section herein. Further,“normal-C_” weight percent and mole percent values for the normal alkanecompounds were obtained using methodology analogous to the pseudocomponent exemplary molar and weight percentage determinations explainedin the Experiments section, except that the densities and molecularweights for the particular normal alkane compound of interest were usedand then compared to the totals obtained in the pseudo componentmethodology to obtain weight and molar percentages.

The following discussion of FIG. 16 concerns data obtained in Examples1-5 which are discussed in the section labeled “Experiments”. The datawas obtained through the experimental procedures, gas sample collectionprocedures, hydrocarbon gas sample gas chromatography (GC) analysismethodology, and gas sample GC peak identification and integrationmethodology discussed in the Experiments section. For clarity, whenreferring to gas chromatograms of gaseous hydrocarbon samples, graphicaldata is provided for one unstressed experiment through Example 1, two400 psi stressed experiments through Examples 2 and 3, and two 1,000 psistressed experiments through Examples 4 and 5.

FIG. 16 is a bar graph showing the concentration, in molar percentage,of the hydrocarbon species present in the gas samples taken from each ofthe three stress levels tested and analyzed in the laboratoryexperiments discussed herein. The gas compound molar percentages wereobtained through the experimental procedures, gas sample collectionprocedures, hydrocarbon gas sample gas chromatography (GC) analysismethodology, gas sample GC peak integration methodology and molarconcentration determination procedures described herein. For clarity,the hydrocarbon molar percentages are taken as a percentage of the totalof all identified hydrocarbon gas GC areas (i.e., methane, ethane,propane, iso-butane, n-butane, iso-pentane, n-pentane, 2-methyl pentane,and n-hexane) and calculated molar concentrations. Thus the graphedmethane to normal C6 molar percentages for all of the experiments do notinclude the molar contribution of any associated non-hydrocarbon gasphase product (e.g., hydrogen, CO₂ or H₂S), any of the unidentifiedhydrocarbon gas species listed in Tables 2, 4, 5, 7, or 9 (e.g., peaknumbers 2, 6, 8-11, 13, 15-22, 24-26, and 28-78 in Table 2) or any ofthe gas species dissolved in the liquid phase which were separatelytreated in the liquid GC's. The y-axis 3080 represents the concentrationin terms of molar percent of each gaseous compound in the gas phase. Thex-axis 3081 contains the identity of each hydrocarbon compound frommethane to normal hexane. The bars 3082A-1 represent the molarpercentage of each gaseous compound for the unstressed experiment ofExample 1. That is 3082A represents methane, 3082B represents ethane,3082C represents propane, 3082D represents iso-butane, 3082E representsnormal butane, 3082F represents iso-pentane, 3082G represents normalpentane, 3082H represents 2-methyl pentane, and 3082I represents normalhexane. The bars 3083A-1 and 3084A-1 represent the molar percent of eachgaseous compound for samples from the duplicate 400 psi stressedexperiments of Examples 2 and 3, with the letters assigned in the mannerdescribed for the unstressed experiment. While the bars 3085A-1 and3086A-1 represent the molar percent of each gaseous compound for theduplicate 1,000 psi stressed experiments of Examples 4 and 5, with theletters assigned in the manner described for the unstressed experiment.From FIG. 16 it can be seen that the hydrocarbon gas produced in all theexperiments is primarily methane, ethane and propane on a molar basis.It is further apparent that the unstressed experiment, represented bybars 3082A-1, contains the most methane 3082A and least propane 3082C,both as compared to the 400 psi stress experiments hydrocarbon gases andthe 1,000 psi stress experiments hydrocarbon gases. Looking now at bars3083A-1 and 3084A-1, it is apparent that the intermediate level 400 psistress experiments produced a hydrocarbon gas having methane 3083A &3084A and propane 3083C & 3084C concentrations between the unstressedexperiment represented by bars 3082A & 3082C and the 1,000 psi stressedexperiment represented by bars 3085A & 3085C and 3086A & 3086C. Lastly,it is apparent that the high level 1,000 psi stress experiments producedhydrocarbon gases having the lowest methane 3085A & 3086A concentrationand the highest propane concentrations 3085C & 3086C, as compared toboth the unstressed experiments represented by bars 3082A & 3082C andthe 400 psi stressed experiment represented by bars 3083A & 3084A and3083C & 3084C. Thus pyrolizing oil shale under increasing levels oflithostatic stress appears to produce hydrocarbon gases havingdecreasing concentrations of methane and increasing concentrations ofpropane.

The hydrocarbon fluid produced from the organic-rich rock formation mayinclude both a condensable hydrocarbon portion (e.g. liquid) and anon-condensable hydrocarbon portion (e.g. gas). In some embodiments thenon-condensable hydrocarbon portion includes methane and propane. Insome embodiments the molar ratio of propane to methane in thenon-condensable hydrocarbon portion is greater than 0.32. In alternativeembodiments, the molar ratio of propane to methane in thenon-condensable hydrocarbon portion is greater than 0.34, 0.36 or 0.38.As used herein “molar ratio of propane to methane” is the molar ratiothat may be determined as described herein, particularly as described inthe section labeled “Experiments” herein. That is “molar ratio ofpropane to methane” is determined using the hydrocarbon gas sample gaschromatography (GC) analysis methodology, gas sample GC peakidentification and integration methodology and molar concentrationdetermination procedures described in the Experiments section of thisapplication.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion of thehydrocarbon fluid includes benzene. In some embodiments the condensablehydrocarbon portion has a benzene content between 0.1 and 0.8 weightpercent. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion may have abenzene content between 0.15 and 0.6 weight percent, a benzene contentbetween 0.15 and 0.5, or a benzene content between 0.15 and 0.5.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion of thehydrocarbon fluid includes cyclohexane. In some embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has a cyclohexane content less than 0.8weight percent. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion mayhave a cyclohexane content less than 0.6 weight percent or less than0.43 weight percent. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portionmay have a cyclohexane content greater than 0.1 weight percent orgreater than 0.2 weight percent.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion of thehydrocarbon fluid includes methyl-cyclohexane. In some embodiments thecondensable hydrocarbon portion has a methly-cyclohexane content greaterthan 0.5 weight percent. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbonportion may have a methly-cyclohexane content greater than 0.7 weightpercent or greater than 0.75 weight percent. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have a methly-cyclohexane contentless than 1.2 or 1.0 weight percent.

The use of weight percentage contents of benzene, cyclohexane, andmethyl-cyclohexane herein and in the claims is meant to refer to theamount of benzene, cyclohexane, and methyl-cyclohexane found in acondensable hydrocarbon fluid determined as described herein,particularly as described in the section labeled “Experiments” herein.That is, respective compound weight percentages are determined from thewhole oil gas chromatography (WOGC) analysis methodology and whole oilgas chromatography (WOGC) peak identification and integrationmethodology discussed in the Experiments section herein. Further, therespective compound weight percentages were obtained as described forFIG. 11, except that each individual respective compound peak areaintegration was used to determine each respective compound weightpercentage. For clarity, the compound weight percentages are taken as apercentage of the entire C3 to pseudo C38 whole oil gas chromatographyareas and calculated weights as used in the pseudo compound datapresented in FIG. 7.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion of thehydrocarbon fluid has an API gravity greater than 30. Alternatively, thecondensable hydrocarbon portion may have an API gravity greater than 30,32, 34, 36, 40, 42 or 44. As used herein and in the claims, API gravitymay be determined by any generally accepted method for determining APIgravity.

In some embodiments the condensable hydrocarbon portion of thehydrocarbon fluid has a basic nitrogen to total nitrogen ratio between0.1 and 0.50. Alternatively, the condensable hydrocarbon portion mayhave a basic nitrogen to total nitrogen ratio between 0.15 and 0.40. Asused herein and in the claims, basic nitrogen and total nitrogen may bedetermined by any generally accepted method for determining basicnitrogen and total nitrogen. Where results conflict, the generallyaccepted more accurate methodology shall control.

The discovery that lithostatic stress can affect the composition ofproduced fluids generated within an organic-rich rock via heating andpyrolysis implies that the composition of the produced hydrocarbon fluidcan also be influenced by altering the lithostatic stress of theorganic-rich rock formation. For example, the lithostatic stress of theorganic-rich rock formation may be altered by choice of pillargeometries and/or locations and/or by choice of heating and pyrolysisformation region thickness and/or heating sequencing.

Pillars are regions within the organic-rich rock formation leftunpyrolized at a given time to lessen or mitigate surface subsidence.Pillars may be regions within a formation surrounded by pyrolysisregions within the same formation. Alternatively, pillars may be part ofor connected to the unheated regions outside the general developmentarea. Certain regions that act as pillars early in the life of aproducing field may be converted to producing regions later in the lifeof the field.

Typically in its natural state, the weight of a formation's overburdenis fairly uniformly distributed over the formation. In this state thelithostatic stress existing at particular point within a formation islargely controlled by the thickness and density of the overburden. Adesired lithostatic stress may be selected by analyzing overburdengeology and choosing a position with an appropriate depth and position.

Although lithostatic stresses are commonly assumed to be set by natureand not changeable short of removing all or part of the overburden,lithostatic stress at a specific location within a formation can beadjusted by redistributing the overburden weight so it is not uniformlysupported by the formation. For example, this redistribution ofoverburden weight may be accomplished by two exemplary methods. One orboth of these methods may be used within a single formation. In certaincases, one method may be primarily used earlier in time whereas theother may be primarily used at a later time. Favorably altering thelithostatic stress experienced by a formation region may be performedprior to instigating significant pyrolysis within the formation regionand also before generating significant hydrocarbon fluids. Alternately,favorably altering the lithostatic stress may be performedsimultaneously with the pyrolysis.

A first method of altering lithostatic stress involves making a regionof a subsurface formation less stiff than its neighboring regions.Neighboring regions thus increasingly act as pillars supporting theoverburden as a particular region becomes less stiff. These pillarregions experience increased lithostatic stress whereas the less stiffregions experience reduced lithostatic stress. The amount of change inlithostatic stress depends upon a number of factors including, forexample, the change in stiffness of the treated region, the size of thetreated region, the pillar size, the pillar spacing, the rockcompressibility, and the rock strength. In an organic-rich rockformation, a region within a formation may be made to experiencemechanical weakening by pyrolyzing the region and creating void spacewithin the region by removing produced fluids. In this way a regionwithin a formation may be made less stiff than neighboring regions thathave not experienced pyrolysis or have experienced a lesser degree ofpyrolysis or production.

A second method of altering lithostatic stress involves causing a regionof a subsurface formation to expand and push against the overburden withgreater force than neighboring regions. This expansion may remove aportion of the overburden weight from the neighboring regions thusincreasing the lithostatic stress experienced by the heated region(s)and reducing the lithostatic stress experienced by neighboring regions.If the expansion is sufficient, horizontal fractures will form in theneighboring regions and the contribution of these regions to supportingthe overburden will decrease. The amount of change in lithostatic stressdepends upon a number of factors including, for example, the amount ofexpansion in the treated region, the size of the treated region, thepillar size, the pillar spacing, the rock compressibility, and the rockstrength. A region within a formation may be made to expand by heatingit so to cause thermal expansion of the rock. Fluid expansion or fluidgeneration can also contribute to expansion if the fluids are largelytrapped within the region. The total expansion amount may beproportional to the thickness of the heated region. It is noted that ifpyrolysis occurs in the heated region and sufficient fluids are removed,the heated region may mechanically weaken and thus may alter thelithostatic stresses experienced by the neighboring regions as describedin the first exemplary method.

Embodiments of the method may include controlling the composition ofproduced hydrocarbon fluids generated by heating and pyrolysis from afirst region within an organic-rich rock formation by increasing thelithostatic stresses within the first region by first heating andpyrolyzing formation hydrocarbons present in the organic-rich rockformation and producing fluids from a second neighboring region withinthe organic-rich rock formation such that the Young's modulus (i.e.,stiffness) of the second region is reduced.

Embodiments of the method may include controlling the composition ofproduced hydrocarbon fluids generated by heating and pyrolysis from afirst region within an organic-rich rock formation by increasing thelithostatic stresses within the first region by heating the first regionprior to or to a greater degree than neighboring regions within theorganic-rich rock formation such that the thermal expansion within thefirst region is greater than that within the neighboring regions of theorganic-rich rock formation.

Embodiments of the method may include controlling the composition ofproduced hydrocarbon fluids generated by heating and pyrolysis from afirst region within an organic-rich rock formation by decreasing thelithostatic stresses within the first region by heating one or moreneighboring regions of the organic-rich rock formation prior to or to agreater degree than the first region such that the thermal expansionwithin the neighboring regions is greater than that within the firstregion.

Embodiments of the method may include locating, sizing, and/or timingthe heating of heated regions within an organic-rich rock formation soas to alter the in situ lithostatic stresses of current or futureheating and pyrolysis regions within the organic-rich rock formation soas to control the composition of produced hydrocarbon fluids.

Some production procedures include in situ heating of an organic-richrock formation that contains both formation hydrocarbons and formationwater-soluble minerals prior to substantial removal of the formationwater-soluble minerals from the organic-rich rock formation. In someembodiments of the invention there is no need to partially,substantially or completely remove the water-soluble minerals prior toin situ heating. For example, in an oil shale formation that containsnaturally occurring nahcolite, the oil shale may be heated prior tosubstantial removal of the nahcolite by solution mining. Substantialremoval of a water-soluble mineral may represent the degree of removalof a water-soluble mineral that occurs from any commercial solutionmining operation as known in the art. Substantial removal of awater-soluble mineral may be approximated as removal of greater than 5weight percent of the total amount of a particular water-soluble mineralpresent in the zone targeted for hydrocarbon fluid production in theorganic-rich rock formation. In alternative embodiments, in situ heatingof the organic-rich rock formation to pyrolyze formation hydrocarbonsmay be commenced prior to removal of greater than 3 weight percent,alternatively 7 weight percent, 10 weight percent or 13 weight percentof the formation water-soluble minerals from the organic-rich rockformation.

The impact of heating oil shale to produce oil and gas prior toproducing nahcolite is to convert the nahcolite to a more recoverableform (soda ash), and provide permeability facilitating its subsequentrecovery. Water-soluble mineral recovery may take place as soon as theretorted oil is produced, or it may be left for a period of years forlater recovery. If desired, the soda ash can be readily converted backto nahcolite on the surface. The ease with which this conversion can beaccomplished makes the two minerals effectively interchangeable.

In some production processes, heating the organic-rich rock formationincludes generating soda ash by decomposition of nahcolite. The methodmay include processing an aqueous solution containing water-solubleminerals in a surface facility to remove a portion of the water-solubleminerals. The processing step may include removing the water-solubleminerals by precipitation caused by altering the temperature of theaqueous solution.

The water-soluble minerals may include sodium. The water-solubleminerals may also include nahcolite (sodium bicarbonate), soda ash(sodium carbonate), dawsonite (NaAl(CO₃)(OH)₂), or combinations thereof.The surface processing may further include converting the soda ash backto sodium bicarbonate (nahcolite) in the surface facility by reactionwith CO₂. After partial or complete removal of the water-solubleminerals, the aqueous solution may be reinjected into a subsurfaceformation where it may be sequestered. The subsurface formation may bethe same as or different from the original organic-rich rock formation.

In some production processes, heating of the organic-rich rock formationboth pyrolyzes at least a portion of the formation hydrocarbons tocreate hydrocarbon fluids and makes available migratory contaminantspecies previously bound in the organic-rich rock formation. Themigratory contaminant species may be formed through pyrolysis of theformation hydrocarbons, may be liberated from the formation itself uponheating, or may be made accessible through the creation of increasedpermeability upon heating of the formation. The migratory contaminantspecies may be soluble in water or other aqueous fluids present in orinjected into the organic-rich rock formation.

Producing hydrocarbons from pyrolyzed oil shale will generally leavebehind some migratory contaminant species which are at least partiallywater-soluble. Depending on the hydrological connectivity of thepyrolyzed shale oil to shallower zones, these components may eventuallymigrate into ground water in concentrations which are environmentallyunacceptable. The types of potential migratory contaminant speciesdepend on the nature of the oil shale pyrolysis and the composition ofthe oil shale being converted. If the pyrolysis is performed in theabsence of oxygen or air, the contaminant species may include aromatichydrocarbons (e.g. benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes),polyaromatic hydrocarbons (e.g. anthracene, pyrene, naphthalene,chrysene), metal contaminants (e.g. As, Co, Pb, Mo, Ni, and Zn), andother species such as sulfates, ammonia, Al, K, Mg, chlorides, fluoridesand phenols. If oxygen or air is employed, contaminant species may alsoinclude ketones, alcohols, and cyanides. Further, the specific migratorycontaminant species present may include any subset or combination of theabove-described species.

It may be desirable for a field developer to assess the connectivity ofthe organic-rich rock formation to aquifers. This may be done todetermine if, or to what extent, in situ pyrolysis of formationhydrocarbons in the organic-rich rock formation may create migratoryspecies with the propensity to migrate into an aquifer. If theorganic-rich rock formation is hydrologically connected to an aquifer,precautions may be taken to reduce or prevent species generated orliberated during pyrolysis from entering the aquifer. Alternatively, theorganic-rich rock formation may be flushed with water or an aqueousfluid after pyrolysis as described herein to remove water-solubleminerals and/or migratory contaminant species. In other embodiments, theorganic-rich rock formation may be substantially hydrologicallyunconnected to any source of ground water. In such a case, flushing theorganic-rich rock formation may not be desirable for removal ofmigratory contaminant species but may nevertheless be desirable forrecovery of water-soluble minerals.

Following production of hydrocarbons from an organic-rich formation,some migratory contaminant species may remain in the rock formation. Insuch case, it may be desirable to inject an aqueous fluid into theorganic-rich rock formation and have the injected aqueous fluid dissolveat least a portion of the water-soluble minerals and/or the migratorycontaminant species to form an aqueous solution. The aqueous solutionmay then be produced from the organic-rich rock formation through, forexample, solution production wells. The aqueous fluid may be adjusted toincrease the solubility of the migratory contaminant species and/or thewater-soluble minerals. The adjustment may include the addition of anacid or base to adjust the pH of the solution. The resulting aqueoussolution may then be produced from the organic-rich rock formation tothe surface for processing.

After initial aqueous fluid production, it may further be desirable toflush the matured organic-rich rock zone and the unmatured organic-richrock zone with an aqueous fluid. The aqueous fluid may be used tofurther dissolve water-soluble minerals and migratory contaminantspecies. The flushing may optionally be completed after a substantialportion of the hydrocarbon fluids have been produced from the maturedorganic-rich rock zone. In some embodiments, the flushing step may bedelayed after the hydrocarbon fluid production step. The flushing may bedelayed to allow heat generated from the heating step to migrate deeperinto surrounding unmatured organic-rich rock zones to convert nahcolitewithin the surrounding unmatured organic-rich rock zones to soda ash.Alternatively, the flushing may be delayed to allow heat generated fromthe heating step to generate permeability within the surroundingunmatured organic-rich rock zones. Further, the flushing may be delayedbased on current and/or forecast market prices of sodium bicarbonate,soda ash, or both as further discussed herein. This method may becombined with any of the other aspects of the invention as discussedherein

Upon flushing of an aqueous solution, it may be desirable to process theaqueous solution in a surface facility to remove at least some of themigratory contaminant species. The migratory contaminant species may beremoved through use of, for example, an adsorbent material, reverseosmosis, chemical oxidation, bio-oxidation, and/or ion exchange.Examples of these processes are individually known in the art. Exemplaryadsorbent materials may include activated carbon, clay, or fuller'searth.

In certain areas with oil shale resources, additional oil shaleresources or other hydrocarbon resources may exist at lower depths.Other hydrocarbon resources may include natural gas in low permeabilityformations (so-called “tight gas”) or natural gas trapped in andadsorbed on coal (so called “coalbed methane”). In some embodiments withmultiple shale oil resources it may be advantageous to develop deeperzones first and then sequentially shallower zones. In this way, wellsneed not cross hot zones or zones of weakened rock. In other embodimentsin may be advantageous to develop deeper zones by drilling wells throughregions being utilized as pillars for shale oil development at ashallower depth.

Simultaneous development of shale oil resources and natural gasresources in the same area can synergistically utilize certain facilityand logistic operations. For example, gas treating may be performed at asingle plant. Likewise personnel may be shared among the developments.

FIG. 6 illustrates a schematic diagram of an embodiment of surfacefacilities 70 that may be configured to treat a produced fluid. Theproduced fluid 85 may be produced from the subsurface formation 84though a production well 71 as described herein. The produced fluid mayinclude any of the produced fluids produced by any of the methods asdescribed herein. The subsurface formation 84 may be any subsurfaceformation, including, for example, an organic-rich rock formationcontaining any of oil shale, coal, or tar sands for example. Aproduction scheme may involve quenching 72 produced fluids to atemperature below 300° F., 200° F., or even 100° F., separating outcondensable components (i.e., oil 74 and water 75) in an oil separator73, treating the noncondensable components 76 (i.e. gas) in a gastreating unit 77 to remove water 78 and sulfur species 79, removing theheavier components from the gas (e.g., propane and butanes) in a gasplant 81 to form liquid petroleum gas (LPG) 80 for sale, and generatingelectrical power 82 in a power plant 88 from the remaining gas 83. Theelectrical power 82 may be used as an energy source for heating thesubsurface formation 84 through any of the methods described herein. Forexample, the electrical power 82 may be feed at a high voltage, forexample 132 kV, to a transformer 86 and let down to a lower voltage, forexample 6600 V, before being fed to an electrical resistance heaterelement located in a heater well 87 located in the subsurface formation84. In this way all or a portion of the power required to heat thesubsurface formation 84 may be generated from the non-condensableportion of the produced fluids 85. Excess gas, if available, may beexported for sale.

Produced fluids from in situ oil shale production contain a number ofcomponents which may be separated in surface facilities. The producedfluids typically contain water, noncondensable hydrocarbon alkanespecies (e.g., methane, ethane, propane, n-butane, isobutane),noncondensable hydrocarbon alkene species (e.g., ethene, propene),condensable hydrocarbon species composed of (alkanes, olefins,aromatics, and polyaromatics among others), CO₂, CO, H₂, H₂S, and NH₃.

In a surface facility, condensable components may be separated fromnon-condensable components by reducing temperature and/or increasingpressure. Temperature reduction may be accomplished using heatexchangers cooled by ambient air or available water. Alternatively, thehot produced fluids may be cooled via heat exchange with producedhydrocarbon fluids previously cooled. The pressure may be increased viacentrifugal or reciprocating compressors. Alternatively, or inconjunction, a diffuser-expander apparatus may be used to condense outliquids from gaseous flows. Separations may involve several stages ofcooling and/or pressure changes.

Water in addition to condensable hydrocarbons may be dropped out of thegas when reducing temperature or increasing pressure. Liquid water maybe separated from condensable hydrocarbons via gravity settling vesselsor centrifugal separators. Demulsifiers may be used to aid in waterseparation.

Methods to remove CO₂, as well as other so-called acid gases (such asH₂S), from produced hydrocarbon gas include the use of chemical reactionprocesses and of physical solvent processes. Chemical reaction processestypically involve contacting the gas stream with an aqueous aminesolution at high pressure and/or low temperature. This causes the acidgas species to chemically react with the amines and go into solution. Byraising the temperature and/or lowering the pressure, the chemicalreaction can be reversed and a concentrated stream of acid gases can berecovered. An alternative chemical reaction process involves hotcarbonate solutions, typically potassium carbonate. The hot carbonatesolution is regenerated and the concentrated stream of acid gases isrecovered by contacting the solution with steam. Physical solventprocesses typically involve contacting the gas stream with a glycol athigh pressure and/or low temperature. Like the amine processes, reducingthe pressure or raising the temperature allows regeneration of thesolvent and recovery of the acid gases. Certain amines or glycols may bemore or less selective in the types of acid gas species removed. Sizingof any of these processes requires determining the amount of chemical tocirculate, the rate of circulation, the energy input for regeneration,and the size and type of gas-chemical contacting equipment. Contactingequipment may include packed or multi-tray countercurrent towers.Optimal sizing for each of these aspects is highly dependent on the rateat which gas is being produced from the formation and the concentrationof the acid gases in the gas stream.

Acid gas removal may also be effectuated through the use of distillationtowers. Such towers may include an intermediate freezing section whereinfrozen CO₂ and H₂₅ particles are allowed to form. A mixture of frozenparticles and liquids fall downward into a stripping section, where thelighter hydrocarbon gasses break out and rise within the tower. Arectification section may be provided at an upper end of the tower tofurther facilitate the cleaning of the overhead gas stream.

The hydrogen content of a gas stream may be adjusted by either removingall or a portion of the hydrogen or by removing all or a portion of thenon-hydrogen species (e.g., CO₂, CH₄, etc.) Separations may beaccomplished using cryogenic condensation, pressure-swing ortemperature-swing adsorption, or selective diffusion membranes. Ifadditional hydrogen is needed, hydrogen may be made by reforming methanevia the classic water-shift reaction.

EXPERIMENTS

Heating experiments were conducted on several different oil shalespecimens and the liquids and gases released from the heated oil shaleexamined in detail. An oil shale sample from the Mahogany formation inthe Piceance Basin in Colorado was collected. A solid, continuous blockof the oil shale formation, approximately 1 cubic foot in size, wascollected from the pilot mine at the Colony mine site on the easternside of Parachute Creek. The oil shale block was designated CM-1B. Thecore specimens taken from this block, as described in the followingexamples, were all taken from the same stratigraphic interval. Theheating tests were conducted using a Parr vessel, model number 243HC5,which is shown in FIG. 18 and is available from Parr Instrument Company.

Example 1

Oil shale block CM-1B was cored across the bedding planes to produce acylinder 1.391 inches in diameter and approximately 2 inches long. Agold tube 7002 approximately 2 inches in diameter and 5 inches long wascrimped and a screen 7000 inserted to serve as a support for the corespecimen 7001 (FIG. 17). The oil shale core specimen 7001, 82.46 gramsin weight, was placed on the screen 7000 in the gold tube 7002 and theentire assembly placed into a Parr heating vessel. The Parr vessel 7010,shown in FIG. 18, had an internal volume of 565 milliliters. Argon wasused to flush the Parr vessel 7010 several times to remove air presentin the chamber and the vessel pressurized to 500 psi with argon. TheParr vessel was then placed in a furnace which was designed to fit theParr vessel. The furnace was initially at room temperature and washeated to 400° C. after the Parr vessel was placed in the furnace. Thetemperature of the Parr vessel achieved 400° C. after about 3 hours andremained in the 400° C. furnace for 24 hours. The Parr vessel was thenremoved from the furnace and allowed to cool to room temperature over aperiod of approximately 16 hours.

The room temperature Parr vessel was sampled to obtain a representativeportion of the gas remaining in the vessel following the heatingexperiment. A small gas sampling cylinder 150 milliliters in volume wasevacuated, attached to the Parr vessel and the pressure allowed toequilibrate. Gas chromatography (GC) analysis testing andnon-hydrocarbon gas sample gas chromatography (GC) (GC not shown) ofthis gas sample yielded the results shown in FIG. 19, Table 2 andTable 1. In FIG. 19 the y-axis 4000 represents the detector response inpico-amperes (pA) while the x-axis 4001 represents the retention time inminutes. In FIG. 19 peak 4002 represents the response for methane, peak4003 represents the response for ethane, peak 4004 represents theresponse for propane, peak 4005 represents the response for butane, peak4006 represents the response for pentane and peak 4007 represents theresponse for hexane. From the GC results and the known volumes andpressures involved the total hydrocarbon content of the gas (2.09grams), CO₂ content of the gas (3.35 grams), and H2S content of the gas(0.06 gram) were obtained.

TABLE 2 Peak and area details for FIG. 19 - Example 1 - 0 stress - gasGC Peak Ret. Time Area Number [min] [pA * s] Name 1 0.910 1.46868e4Methane 2 0.999 148.12119 ? 3 1.077 1.26473e4 Ethane 4 2.528 1.29459e4Propane 5 4.243 2162.93066 iC4 6 4.922 563.11804 ? 7 5.022 5090.54150n-Butane 8 5.301 437.92255 ? 9 5.446 4.67394 ? 10 5.582 283.92194 ? 116.135 15.47334 ? 12 6.375 1159.83130 iC5 13 6.742 114.83960 ? 14 6.8991922.98450 n-Pentane 15 7.023 2.44915 ? 16 7.136 264.34424 ? 17 7.296127.60601 ? 18 7.383 118.79453 ? 19 7.603 3.99227 ? 20 8.138 13.15432 ?21 8.223 13.01887 ? 22 8.345 103.15615 ? 23 8.495 291.26767 2-methylpentane 24 8.651 15.64066 ? 25 8.884 91.85989 ? 26 9.165 40.09448 ? 279.444 534.44507 n-Hexane 28 9.557 2.64731 ? 29 9.650 32.28295 ? 30 9.71452.42796 ? 31 9.793 42.05001 ? 32 9.852 8.93775 ? 33 9.914 4.43648 ? 3410.013 24.74299 ? 35 10.229 13.34387 ? 36 10.302 133.95892 ? 37 10.5772.67224 ? 38 11.252 27.57400 ? 39 11.490 23.41665 ? 40 11.567 8.13992 ?41 11.820 32.80781 ? 42 11.945 4.61821 ? 43 12.107 30.67044 ? 44 12.1782.58269 ? 45 12.308 13.57769 ? 46 12.403 12.43018 ? 47 12.492 34.29918 ?48 12.685 4.71311 ? 49 12.937 183.31729 ? 50 13.071 7.18510 ? 51 13.1552.01699 ? 52 13.204 7.77467 ? 53 13.317 7.21400 ? 54 13.443 4.22721 ? 5513.525 35.08374 ? 56 13.903 18.48654 ? 57 14.095 6.39745 ? 58 14.3223.19935 ? 59 14.553 8.48772 ? 60 14.613 3.34738 ? 61 14.730 5.44062 ? 6214.874 40.17010 ? 63 14.955 3.41596 ? 64 15.082 3.04766 ? 65 15.1387.33028 ? 66 15.428 2.71734 ? 67 15.518 11.00256 ? 68 15.644 5.16752 ?69 15.778 45.12025 ? 70 15.855 3.26920 ? 71 16.018 3.77424 ? 72 16.4844.66657 ? 73 16.559 5.54783 ? 74 16.643 10.57255 ? 75 17.261 2.19534 ?76 17.439 10.26123 ? 77 17.971 1.85618 ? 78 18.097 11.42077 ?

The Parr vessel was then vented to achieve atmospheric pressure, thevessel opened, and liquids collected from both inside the gold tube andin the bottom of the Parr vessel. Water was separated from thehydrocarbon layer and weighed. The amount collected is noted in Table 1.The collected hydrocarbon liquids were placed in a small vial, sealedand stored in the absence of light. No solids were observed on the wallsof the gold tube or the walls of the Parr vessel. The solid corespecimen was weighed and determined to have lost 19.21 grams as a resultof heating. Whole oil gas chromatography (WOGC) testing of the liquidyielded the results shown in FIG. 20, Table 3, and Table 1. In FIG. 20the y-axis 5000 represents the detector response in pico-amperes (pA)while the x-axis 5001 represents the retention time in minutes. The GCchromatogram is shown generally by label 5002 with individual identifiedpeaks labeled with abbreviations.

TABLE 3 Peak and area details for FIG. 20 - Example 1 - 0 stress -liquid GC Peak Ret. Time Peak Area Compound Number [min] [pA * s] Name 1 2.660 119.95327 iC4  2 2.819 803.25989 nC4  3 3.433 1091.80298 iC5  43.788 2799.32520 nC5  5 5.363 1332.67871 2-methyl pentane (2MP)  6 5.798466.35703 3-methyl pentane (3MP)  7 6.413 3666.46240 nC6  8 7.3141161.70435 Methyl cyclopentane (MCP)  9 8.577 287.05969 Benzene (BZ) 109.072 530.19781 Cyclohexane (CH) 11 10.488 4700.48291 nC7 12 11.174937.38757 Methyl cyclohexane (MCH) 13 12.616 882.17358 Toluene (TOL) 1414.621 3954.29687 nC8 15 18.379 3544.52905 nC9 16 21.793 3452.04199 nC1017 24.929 3179.11841 nC11 18 27.843 2680.95459 nC12 19 30.571 2238.89600nC13 20 33.138 2122.53540 nC14 21 35.561 1773.59973 nC15 22 37.8521792.89526 nC16 23 40.027 1394.61707 nC17 24 40.252 116.81663 Pristane(Pr) 25 42.099 1368.02734 nC18 26 42.322 146.96437 Phytane (Ph) 2744.071 1130.63342 nC19 28 45.956 920.52136 nC20 29 47.759 819.92810 nC2130 49.483 635.42065 nC22 31 51.141 563.24316 nC23 32 52.731 432.74606nC24 33 54.261 397.36270 nC25 34 55.738 307.56073 nC26 35 57.161298.70926 nC27 36 58.536 252.60083 nC28 37 59.867 221.84540 nC29 3861.154 190.29596 nC30 39 62.539 123.65781 nC31 40 64.133 72.47668 nC3241 66.003 76.84142 nC33 42 68.208 84.35004 nC34 43 70.847 36.68131 nC3544 74.567 87.62341 nC36 45 77.798 33.30892 nC37 46 82.361 21.99784 nC38Totals: 5.32519e4

Example 2

Oil shale block CM-1B was cored in a manner similar to that of Example 1except that a 1 inch diameter core was created. With reference to FIG.21, the core specimen 7050 was approximately 2 inches in length andweighed 42.47 grams. This core specimen 7050 was placed in a Bereasandstone cylinder 7051 with a 1-inch inner diameter and a 1.39 inchouter diameter. Berea plugs 7052 and 7053 were placed at each end ofthis assembly, so that the core specimen was completely surrounded byBerea. The Berea cylinder 7051 along with the core specimen 7050 and theBerea end plugs 7052 and 7053 were placed in a slotted stainless steelsleeve and clamped into place. The sample assembly 7060 was placed in aspring-loaded mini-load-frame 7061 as shown in FIG. 22. Load was appliedby tightening the nuts 7062 and 7063 at the top of the load frame 7061to compress the springs 7064 and 7065. The springs 7064 and 7065 werehigh temperature, Inconel springs, which delivered 400 psi effectivestress to the oil shale specimen 7060 when compressed. Sufficient travelof the springs 7064 and 7065 remained in order to accommodate anyexpansion of the core specimen 7060 during the course of heating. Inorder to ensure that this was the case, gold foil 7066 was placed on oneof the legs of the apparatus to gauge the extent of travel. The entirespring loaded apparatus 7061 was placed in the Parr vessel (FIG. 18) andthe heating experiment conducted as described in Example 1.

As described in Example 1, the room temperature Parr vessel was thensampled to obtain a representative portion of the gas remaining in thevessel following the heating experiment. Gas sampling, hydrocarbon gassample gas chromatography (GC) testing, and non-hydrocarbon gas samplegas chromatography (GC) was conducted as in Example 1. Results are shownin FIG. 23, Table 4 and Table 1. In FIG. 23 the y-axis 4010 representsthe detector response in pico-amperes (pA) while the x-axis 4011represents the retention time in minutes. In FIG. 23 peak 4012represents the response for methane, peak 4013 represents the responsefor ethane, peak 4014 represents the response for propane, peak 4015represents the response for butane, peak 4016 represents the responsefor pentane and peak 4017 represents the response for hexane. From thegas chromatographic results and the known volumes and pressures involvedthe total hydrocarbon content of the gas was determined to be 1.33 gramsand CO₂ content of the gas was 1.70 grams.

TABLE 4 Peak and area details for FIG. 23 - Example 2 - 400 psi stress -gas GC Peak Ret. Time Area Number [min] [pA * s] Name 1 0.910 1.36178e4Methane 2 0.999 309.65613 ? 3 1.077 1.24143e4 Ethane 4 2.528 1.41685e4Propane 5 4.240 2103.01929 iC4 6 4.917 1035.25513 ? 7 5.022 5689.08887n-Butane 8 5.298 450.26572 ? 9 5.578 302.56229 ? 10 6.125 33.82201 ? 116.372 1136.37097 iC5 12 6.736 263.35754 ? 13 6.898 2254.86621 n-Pentane14 7.066 7.12101 ? 15 7.133 258.31876 ? 16 7.293 126.54671 ? 17 7.378155.60977 ? 18 7.598 6.73467 ? 19 7.758 679.95312 ? 20 8.133 27.13466 ?21 8.216 24.77329 ? 22 8.339 124.70064 ? 23 8.489 289.12952 2-methylpentane 24 8.644 19.83309 ? 25 8.878 92.18938 ? 26 9.184 102.25701 ? 279.438 664.42584 n-Hexane 28 9.549 2.91525 ? 29 9.642 26.86672 ? 30 9.70549.83235 ? 31 9.784 52.11239 ? 32 9.843 9.03158 ? 33 9.904 6.18217 ? 3410.004 24.84150 ? 35 10.219 13.21182 ? 36 10.292 158.67511 ? 37 10.4112.49094 ? 38 10.566 3.25252 ? 39 11.240 46.79988 ? 40 11.478 29.59438 ?41 11.555 12.84377 ? 42 11.809 38.67433 ? 43 11.935 5.68525 ? 44 12.09631.29068 ? 45 12.167 5.84513 ? 46 12.297 15.52042 ? 47 12.393 13.54158 ?48 12.483 30.95983 ? 49 12.669 20.21915 ? 50 12.929 229.00655 ? 5113.063 6.38678 ? 52 13.196 10.89876 ? 53 13.306 7.91553 ? 54 13.4355.05444 ? 55 13.516 44.42806 ? 56 13.894 20.61910 ? 57 14.086 8.32365 ?58 14.313 2.80677 ? 59 14.545 9.18198 ? 60 14.605 4.93703 ? 61 14.7225.06628 ? 62 14.865 46.53282 ? 63 14.946 6.55945 ? 64 15.010 2.85594 ?65 15.075 4.05371 ? 66 15.131 9.15954 ? 67 15.331 2.16523 ? 68 15.4213.03294 ? 69 15.511 9.73797 ? 70 15.562 5.22962 ? 71 15.636 3.73105 ? 7215.771 54.64651 ? 73 15.848 3.95764 ? 74 16.010 3.39639 ? 75 16.4775.49586 ? 76 16.552 6.21470 ? 77 16.635 11.08140 ? 78 17.257 2.28673 ?79 17.318 2.82284 ? 80 17.433 11.11376 ? 81 17.966 2.54065 ? 82 18.09014.28333 ?

At this point, the Parr vessel was vented to achieve atmosphericpressure, the vessel opened, and liquids collected from inside the Parrvessel. Water was separated from the hydrocarbon layer and weighed. Theamount collected is noted in Table 1. The collected hydrocarbon liquidswere placed in a small vial, sealed and stored in the absence of light.Any additional liquid coating the surface of the apparatus or sides ofthe Parr vessel was collected with a paper towel and the weight of thiscollected liquid added to the total liquid collected. Any liquidremaining in the Berea sandstone was extracted with methylene chlorideand the weight accounted for in the liquid total reported in Table 1.The Berea sandstone cylinder and end caps were clearly blackened withorganic material as a result of the heating. The organic material in theBerea was not extractable with either toluene or methylene chloride, andwas therefore determined to be coke formed from the cracking ofhydrocarbon liquids. After the heating experiment, the Berea was crushedand its total organic carbon (TOC) was measured. This measurement wasused to estimate the amount of coke in the Berea and subsequently howmuch liquid must have cracked in the Berea. A constant factor of 2.283was used to convert the TOC measured to an estimate of the amount ofliquid, which must have been present to produce the carbon found in theBerea. This liquid estimated is the “inferred oil” value shown inTable 1. The solid core specimen was weighed and determined to have lost10.29 grams as a result of heating.

Example 3

Conducted in a manner similar to that of Example 2 on a core specimenfrom oil shale block CM-1B, where the effective stress applied was 400psi. Results for the gas sample collected and analyzed by hydrocarbongas sample gas chromatography (GC) and non-hydrocarbon gas sample gaschromatography (GC) (GC not shown) are shown in FIG. 24, Table 5 andTable 1. In FIG. 24 the y-axis 4020 represents the detector response inpico-amperes (pA) while the x-axis 4021 represents the retention time inminutes. In FIG. 24 peak 4022 represents the response for methane, peak4023 represents the response for ethane, peak 4024 represents theresponse for propane, peak 4025 represents the response for butane, peak4026 represents the response for pentane and peak 4027 represents theresponse for hexane. Results for the liquid collected and analyzed bywhole oil gas chromatography (WOGC) analysis are shown in FIG. 25, Table6 and Table 1. In FIG. 25 the y-axis 5050 represents the detectorresponse in pico-amperes (pA) while the x-axis 5051 represents theretention time in minutes. The GC chromatogram is shown generally bylabel 5052 with individual identified peaks labeled with abbreviations.

TABLE 5 Peak and area details for FIG. 24 - Example 3 - 400 psi stress -gas GC Peak Ret. Time Area Number [min] [pA * s] Name 1 0.910 1.71356e4Methane 2 0.998 341.71646 ? 3 1.076 1.52621e4 Ethane 4 2.534 1.72319e4Propane 5 4.242 2564.04077 iC4 6 4.919 1066.90942 ? 7 5.026 6553.25244n-Butane 8 5.299 467.88803 ? 9 5.579 311.65158 ? 10 6.126 33.61063 ? 116.374 1280.77869 iC5 12 6.737 250.05510 ? 13 6.900 2412.40918 n-Pentane14 7.134 249.80679 ? 15 7.294 122.60424 ? 16 7.379 154.40988 ? 17 7.5996.87471 ? 18 8.132 25.50270 ? 19 8.216 22.33015 ? 20 8.339 129.17023 ?21 8.490 304.97903 2-methyl pentane 22 8.645 18.48411 ? 23 8.87998.23043 ? 24 9.187 89.71329 ? 25 9.440 656.02161 n-Hexane 26 9.5513.05892 ? 27 9.645 25.34058 ? 28 9.708 45.14915 ? 29 9.786 48.62077 ? 309.845 10.03335 ? 31 9.906 5.43165 ? 32 10.007 22.33582 ? 33 10.21916.02756 ? 34 10.295 196.43715 ? 35 10.413 2.98115 ? 36 10.569 3.88067 ?37 11.243 41.63386 ? 38 11.482 28.44063 ? 39 11.558 12.05196 ? 40 11.81237.83630 ? 41 11.938 5.45990 ? 42 12.100 31.03111 ? 43 12.170 4.91053 ?44 12.301 15.75041 ? 45 12.397 13.75454 ? 46 12.486 30.26099 ? 47 12.67215.14775 ? 48 12.931 207.50433 ? 49 13.064 3.35393 ? 50 13.103 3.04880 ?51 13.149 1.62203 ? 52 13.198 7.97665 ? 53 13.310 7.49605 ? 54 13.4374.64921 ? 55 13.519 41.82572 ? 56 13.898 19.01739 ? 57 14.089 7.34498 ?58 14.316 2.68912 ? 59 14.548 8.29593 ? 60 14.608 3.93147 ? 61 14.7254.75483 ? 62 14.869 40.93447 ? 63 14.949 5.30140 ? 64 15.078 5.79979 ?65 15.134 7.95179 ? 66 15.335 1.91589 ? 67 15.423 2.75893 ? 68 15.5158.64343 ? 69 15.565 3.76481 ? 70 15.639 3.41854 ? 71 15.774 45.59035 ?72 15.850 3.73501 ? 73 16.014 5.84199 ? 74 16.480 4.87036 ? 75 16.5555.12607 ? 76 16.639 9.97469 ? 77 17.436 8.00434 ? 78 17.969 3.86749 ? 7918.093 9.71661 ?

TABLE 6 Peak and area details from FIG. 25 - Example 3 - 400 psistress - liquid GC. Peak Ret. Time Peak Area Compound Number [min] [pA *s] Name  1 2.744 102.90978 iC4  2 2.907 817.57861 nC4  3 3.5381187.01831 iC5  4 3.903 3752.84326 nC5  5 5.512 1866.25342 2MP  6 5.950692.18964 3MP  7 6.580 6646.48242 nC6  8 7.475 2117.66919 MCP  9 8.739603.21204 BZ 10 9.230 1049.96240 CH 11 10.668 9354.29590 nC7 12 11.3402059.10303 MCH 13 12.669 689.82861 TOL 14 14.788 8378.59375 nC8 1518.534 7974.54883 nC9 16 21.938 7276.47705 nC10 17 25.063 6486.47998nC11 18 27.970 5279.17187 nC12 19 30.690 4451.49902 nC13 20 33.2544156.73389 nC14 21 35.672 3345.80273 nC15 22 37.959 3219.63745 nC16 2340.137 2708.28003 nC17 24 40.227 219.38252 Pr 25 42.203 2413.01929 nC1826 42.455 317.17825 Ph 27 44.173 2206.65405 nC19 28 46.056 1646.56616nC20 29 47.858 1504.49097 nC21 30 49.579 1069.23608 nC22 31 51.234949.49316 nC23 32 52.823 719.34735 nC24 33 54.355 627.46436 nC25 3455.829 483.81885 nC26 35 57.253 407.86371 nC27 36 58.628 358.52216 nC2837 59.956 341.01791 nC29 38 61.245 214.87863 nC30 39 62.647 146.06461nC31 40 64.259 127.66831 nC32 41 66.155 85.17574 nC33 42 68.403 64.29253nC34 43 71.066 56.55088 nC35 44 74.282 28.61854 nC36 45 78.140 220.95929nC37 46 83.075 26.95426 nC38 Totals: 9.84518e4

Example 4

Conducted in a manner similar to that of Example 2 on a core specimenfrom oil shale block CM-1B; however, in this example the appliedeffective stress was 1,000 psi. Results for the gas collected andanalyzed by hydrocarbon gas sample gas chromatography (GC) andnon-hydrocarbon gas sample gas chromatography (GC) (GC not shown) areshown in FIG. 26, Table 7 and Table 1. In FIG. 26 the y-axis 4030represents the detector response in pico-amperes (pA) while the x-axis4031 represents the retention time in minutes. In FIG. 26 peak 4032represents the response for methane, peak 4033 represents the responsefor ethane, peak 4034 represents the response for propane, peak 4035represents the response for butane, peak 4036 represents the responsefor pentane and peak 4037 represents the response for hexane. Resultsfor the liquid collected and analyzed by whole oil gas chromatography(WOGC) are shown in FIG. 27, Table 8 and Table 1. In FIG. 27 the y-axis6000 represents the detector response in pico-amperes (pA) while thex-axis 6001 represents the retention time in minutes. The GCchromatogram is shown generally by label 6002 with individual identifiedpeaks labeled with abbreviations.

TABLE 7 Peak and area details for FIG. 26 - Example 4 - 1000 psistress - gas GC Peak Ret. Time Area Number [min] [pA * s] Name 1 0.9101.43817e4 Methane 2 1.000 301.69287 ? 3 1.078 1.37821e4 Ethane 4 2.5411.64047e4 Propane 5 4.249 2286.08032 iC4 6 4.924 992.04395 ? 7 5.0306167.50000 n-Butane 8 5.303 534.37000 ? 9 5.583 358.96567 ? 10 6.13127.44937 ? 11 6.376 1174.68872 iC5 12 6.740 223.61662 ? 13 6.9022340.79248 n-Pentane 14 7.071 5.29245 ? 15 7.136 309.94775 ? 16 7.295154.59171 ? 17 7.381 169.53279 ? 18 7.555 2.80458 ? 19 7.601 5.22327 ?20 7.751 117.69164 ? 21 8.134 29.41086 ? 22 8.219 19.39338 ? 23 8.342133.52739 ? 24 8.492 281.61343 2-methyl pentane 25 8.647 22.19704 ? 268.882 99.56919 ? 27 9.190 86.65676 ? 28 9.443 657.28754 n-Hexane 299.552 4.12572 ? 30 9.646 34.33701 ? 31 9.710 59.12064 ? 32 9.78862.97972 ? 33 9.847 15.13559 ? 34 9.909 6.88310 ? 35 10.009 29.11555 ?36 10.223 23.65434 ? 37 10.298 173.95422 ? 38 10.416 3.37255 ? 39 10.5697.64592 ? 40 11.246 47.30062 ? 41 11.485 32.04262 ? 42 11.560 13.74583 ?43 11.702 2.68917 ? 44 11.815 36.51670 ? 45 11.941 6.45255 ? 46 12.10328.44484 ? 47 12.172 5.96475 ? 48 12.304 17.59856 ? 49 12.399 15.17446 ?50 12.490 31.96492 ? 51 12.584 3.27834 ? 52 12.675 14.08259 ? 53 12.934207.21574 ? 54 13.105 8.29743 ? 55 13.151 2.25476 ? 56 13.201 8.36965 ?57 13.312 9.49917 ? 58 13.436 6.09893 ? 59 13.521 46.34579 ? 60 13.90020.53506 ? 61 14.090 8.41120 ? 62 14.318 4.36870 ? 63 14.550 8.68951 ?64 14.610 4.39150 ? 65 14.727 4.35713 ? 66 14.870 37.17881 ? 67 14.9515.78219 ? 68 15.080 5.54470 ? 69 15.136 8.07308 ? 70 15.336 2.07075 ? 7115.425 2.67118 ? 72 15.516 8.47004 ? 73 15.569 3.89987 ? 74 15.6413.96979 ? 75 15.776 40.75155 ? 76 16.558 5.06379 ? 77 16.641 8.43767 ?78 17.437 6.00180 ? 79 18.095 7.66881 ? 80 15.853 3.97375 ? 81 16.0165.68997 ? 82 16.482 3.27234 ?

TABLE 8 Peak and area details from FIG. 27 - Example 4 - 1000 psistress - liquid GC. Peak Ret. Time Peak Area Compound Number [min] [pA *s] Name  1 2.737 117.78948 iC4  2 2.901 923.40125 nC4  3 3.5281079.83325 iC5  4 3.891 3341.44604 nC5  5 5.493 1364.53186 2MP  6 5.930533.68530 3MP  7 6.552 5160.12207 nC6  8 7.452 1770.29932 MCP  9 8.717487.04718 BZ 10 9.206 712.61566 CH 11 10.634 7302.51123 nC7 12 11.1755.92236 MCH 13 12.760 2145.57666 TOL 14 14.755 6434.40430 nC8 1518.503 6007.12891 nC9 16 21.906 5417.67480 nC10 17 25.030 4565.11084nC11 18 27.936 3773.91943 nC12 19 30.656 3112.23950 nC13 20 33.2202998.37720 nC14 21 35.639 2304.97632 nC15 22 37.927 2197.88892 nC16 2340.102 1791.11877 nC17 24 40.257 278.39423 Pr 25 42.171 1589.64233 nC1826 42.428 241.65131 Ph 27 44.141 1442.51843 nC19 28 46.025 1031.68481nC20 29 47.825 957.65479 nC21 30 49.551 609.59943 nC22 31 51.208526.53339 nC23 32 52.798 383.01022 nC24 33 54.329 325.93640 nC25 3455.806 248.12935 nC26 35 57.230 203.21725 nC27 36 58.603 168.78055 nC2837 59.934 140.40034 nC29 38 61.222 95.47594 nC30 39 62.622 77.49546 nC3140 64.234 49.08135 nC32 41 66.114 33.61663 nC33 42 68.350 27.46170 nC3443 71.030 35.89277 nC35 44 74.162 16.87499 nC36 45 78.055 29.21477 nC3746 82.653 9.88631 nC38 Totals: 7.38198e4

Example 5

Conducted in a manner similar to that of Example 2 on a core specimenfrom oil shale block CM-1B; however, in this example the appliedeffective stress was 1,000 psi. Results for the gas collected andanalyzed by hydrocarbon gas sample gas chromatography (GC) andnon-hydrocarbon gas sample gas chromatography (GC) (GC not shown) areshown in FIG. 28, Table 9 and Table 1. In FIG. 28 the y-axis 4040represents the detector response in pico-amperes (pA) while the x-axis4041 represents the retention time in minutes. In FIG. 28 peak 4042represents the response for methane, peak 4043 represents the responsefor ethane, peak 4044 represents the response for propane, peak 4045represents the response for butane, peak 4046 represents the responsefor pentane and peak 4047 represents the response for hexane.

TABLE 9 Peak and area details for FIG. 28 - Example 5 - 1000 psistress - gas GC Peak Ret Time Area Number [min] [pA * s] Name 1 0.9101.59035e4 Methane 2 0.999 434.21375 ? 3 1.077 1.53391e4 Ethane 4 2.5371.86530e4 Propane 5 4.235 2545.45850 iC4 6 4.907 1192.68970 ? 7 5.0156814.44678 n-Butane 8 5.285 687.83679 ? 9 5.564 463.25885 ? 10 6.10630.02624 ? 11 6.351 1295.13477 iC5 12 6.712 245.26985 ? 13 6.8762561.11792 n-Pentane 14 7.039 4.50998 ? 15 7.109 408.32999 ? 16 7.268204.45311 ? 17 7.354 207.92183 ? 18 7.527 4.02397 ? 19 7.574 5.65699 ?20 7.755 2.35952 ? 21 7.818 2.00382 ? 22 8.107 38.23093 ? 23 8.19320.54333 ? 24 8.317 148.54445 ? 25 8.468 300.31586 2-methyl pentane 268.622 26.06131 ? 27 8.858 113.70123 ? 28 9.168 90.37163 ? 29 9.422694.74438 n-Hexane 30 9.531 4.88323 ? 31 9.625 45.91505 ? 32 9.68976.32931 ? 33 9.767 77.63214 ? 34 9.826 19.23768 ? 35 9.889 8.54605 ? 369.989 37.74959 ? 37 10.204 30.83943 ? 38 10.280 184.58420 ? 39 10.3974.43609 ? 40 10.551 10.59880 ? 41 10.843 2.30370 ? 42 11.231 55.64666 ?43 11.472 35.46931 ? 44 11.547 17.16440 ? 45 11.691 3.30460 ? 46 11.80439.46368 ? 47 11.931 7.32969 ? 48 12.094 30.59748 ? 49 12.163 6.93754 ?50 12.295 18.69523 ? 51 12.391 15.96837 ? 52 12.482 33.66422 ? 53 12.5772.02121 ? 54 12.618 2.32440 ? 55 12.670 12.83803 ? 56 12.851 2.22731 ?57 12.929 218.23195 ? 58 13.100 14.33166 ? 59 13.198 10.20244 ? 6013.310 12.02551 ? 61 13.432 8.23884 ? 62 13.519 47.64641 ? 63 13.89822.63760 ? 64 14.090 9.29738 ? 65 14.319 3.88012 ? 66 14.551 9.26884 ?67 14.612 4.34914 ? 68 14.729 4.07543 ? 69 14.872 46.24465 ? 70 14.9546.62461 ? 71 15.084 3.92423 ? 72 15.139 8.60328 ? 73 15.340 2.17899 ? 7415.430 2.96646 ? 75 15.521 9.66407 ? 76 15.578 4.27190 ? 77 15.6454.37904 ? 78 15.703 2.68909 ? 79 15.782 46.97895 ? 80 15.859 4.69475 ?81 16.022 7.36509 ? 82 16.489 3.91073 ? 83 16.564 6.22445 ? 84 16.64810.24660 ? 85 17.269 2.69753 ? 86 17.445 10.16989 ? 87 17.925 2.28341 ?88 17.979 2.71101 ? 89 18.104 11.19730 ?

TABLE 1 Summary data for Examples 1-5. Example 1 Example 2 Example 3Example 4 Example 5 Effective Stress (psi) 0 400 400 1000 1000 Sampleweight (g) 82.46 42.57 48.34 43.61 43.73 Sample weight loss (g) 19.2110.29 11.41 10.20 9.17 Fluids Recovered: Oil (g) 10.91 3.63 3.77 3.022.10 36.2 gal/ton 23.4 gal/ton 21.0 gal/ton 19.3 gal/ton 13/1 gal/tonWater (g) 0.90 0.30 0.34 0.39 0.28 2.6 gal/ton 1.7 gal/ton 1.7 gal/ton2.1 gal/ton 1.5 gal/ton HC gas (g) 2.09 1.33 1.58 1.53 1.66 683 scf/ton811 scf/ton 862 scf/ton 905 scf/ton 974 scf/ton CO₂ (g) 3.35 1.70 1.641.74 1.71 700 scf/ton 690 scf/ton 586 scf/ton 690 scf/ton 673 scf/tonH₂S (g) 0.06 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Coke Recovered: 0.0 0.73 0.79 .47 0.53Inferred Oil (g) 0.0 1.67 1.81 1.07 1.21 0 gal/ton 10.8 gal/ton 10.0gal/ton 6.8 gal/ton 7.6 gal/ton Total Oil (g) 10.91 5.31 5.58 4.09 3.3036.2 gal/ton 34.1 gal/ton 31.0 gal/ton 26.1 gal/ton 20.7 gal/ton Balance(g) 1.91 2.59 3.29 3.05 2.91

Analysis

The gas and liquid samples obtained through the experimental proceduresand gas and liquid sample collection procedures described for Examples1-5, were analyzed by the following hydrocarbon gas sample gaschromatography (GC) analysis methodology, non-hydrocarbon gas sample gaschromatography (GC) analysis methodology, gas sample GC peakidentification and integration methodology, whole oil gas chromatography(WOGC) analysis methodology, and whole oil gas chromatography (WOGC)peak identification and integration methodology.

Gas samples collected during the heating tests as described in Examples1-5 were analyzed for both hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon gases, usingan Agilent Model 6890 Gas Chromatograph coupled to an Agilent Model 5973quadrapole mass selective detector. The 6890 GC was configured with twoinlets (front and back) and two detectors (front and back) with twofixed volume sample loops for sample introduction. Peak identificationsand integrations were performed using the Chemstation software (RevisionA.03.01) supplied with the GC instrument. For hydrocarbon gases, the GCconfiguration consisted of the following:

a) split/splitless inlet (back position of the GC)

b) FID (Flame ionization detector) back position of the GC

c) HP Ultra-2 (5% Phenyl Methyl Siloxane) capillary columns (two) (25meters×200 μm ID) one directed to the FID detector, the other to anAgilent 5973 Mass Selective Detector

d) 500 μl fixed volume sample loop

e) six-port gas sampling valve

f) cryogenic (liquid nitrogen) oven cooling capability

g) Oven program −80° C. for 2 mins., 20° C./min. to 0° C., then 4°C./min to 20° C., then 10° C./min. to 100° C., hold for 1 min.

h) Helium carrier gas flow rate of 2.2 ml/min

i) Inlet temperature 100° C.

j) Inlet pressure 19.35 psi

k) Split ratio 25:1

l) FID temperature 310° C.

For non-hydrocarbon gases (e.g., argon, carbon dioxide and hydrogensulfide) the GC configuration consisted of the following:

a) PTV (programmable temperature vaporization) inlet (front position ofthe GC)

b) TCD (Thermal conductivity detector) front position of the GC

c) GS-GasPro capillary column (30 meters×0.32 mm ID)

d) 100 μl fixed volume sample loop

e) six port gas sampling valve

f) Oven program: 25° C. hold for 2 min., then 10° C./min to 200° C.,hold 1 min.

g) Helium carrier gas flow rate of 4.1 ml/min.

h) Inlet temperature 200° C.

i) Inlet pressure 14.9 psi

j) Splitless mode

k) TCD temperature 250° C.

For Examples 1-5, a stainless steel sample cylinder containing gascollected from the Parr vessel (FIG. 18) was fitted with a two stage gasregulator (designed for lecture bottle use) to reduce gas pressure toapproximately twenty pounds per square inch. A septum fitting waspositioned at the outlet port of the regulator to allow withdrawal ofgas by means of a Hamilton model 1005 gas-tight syringe. Both the septumfitting and the syringe were purged with gas from the stainless steelsample cylinder to ensure that a representative gas sample wascollected. The gas sample was then transferred to a stainless steel cell(septum cell) equipped with a pressure transducer and a septum fitting.The septum cell was connected to the fixed volume sample loop mounted onthe GC by stainless steel capillary tubing. The septum cell and sampleloop were evacuated for approximately 5 minutes. The evacuated septumcell was then isolated from the evacuated sample loop by closure of aneedle valve positioned at the outlet of the septum cell. The gas samplewas introduced into the septum cell from the gas-tight syringe throughthe septum fitting and a pressure recorded. The evacuated sample loopwas then opened to the pressurized septum cell and the gas sampleallowed to equilibrate between the sample loop and the septum cell forone minute. The equilibrium pressure was then recorded, to allowcalculation of the total moles of gas present in the sample loop beforeinjection into the GC inlet. The sample loop contents were then sweptinto the inlet by Helium carrier gas and components separated byretention time in the capillary column, based upon the GC oventemperature program and carrier gas flow rates.

Calibration curves, correlating integrated peak areas withconcentration, were generated for quantification of gas compositionsusing certified gas standards. For hydrocarbon gases, standardscontaining a mixture of methane, ethane, propane, butane, pentane andhexane in a helium matrix in varying concentrations (parts per million,mole basis) were injected into the GC through the fixed volume sampleloop at atmospheric pressure. For non-hydrocarbon gases, standardscontaining individual components, i.e., carbon dioxide in helium andhydrogen sulfide in natural gas, were injected into the GC at varyingpressures in the sample loop to generate calibration curves.

The hydrocarbon gas sample molar percentages reported in FIG. 16 wereobtained using the following procedure. Gas standards for methane,ethane, propane, butane, pentane and hexane of at least three varyingconcentrations were run on the gas chromatograph to obtain peak arearesponses for such standard concentrations. The known concentrationswere then correlated to the respective peak area responses within theChemstation software to generate calibration curves for methane, ethane,propane, butane, pentane and hexane. The calibration curves were plottedin Chemstation to ensure good linearity (R2>0.98) between concentrationand peak intensity. A linear fit was used for each calibrated compound,so that the response factor between peak area and molar concentrationwas a function of the slope of the line as determined by the Chemstationsoftware. The Chemstation software program then determined a responsefactor relating GC peak area intensity to the amount of moles for eachcalibrated compound. The software then determined the number of moles ofeach calibrated compound from the response factor and the peak area. Thepeak areas used in Examples 1-5 are reported in Tables 2, 4, 5, 7, and9. The number of moles of each identified compound for which acalibration curve was not determined (i.e., iso-butane, iso-pentane, and2-methyl pentane) was then estimated using the response factor for theclosest calibrated compound (i.e., butane for iso-butane; pentane foriso-pentane; and hexane for 2-methyl pentane) multiplied by the ratio ofthe peak area for the identified compound for which a calibration curvewas not determined to the peak area of the calibrated compound. Thevalues reported in FIG. 16 were then taken as a percentage of the totalof all identified hydrocarbon gas GC areas (i.e., methane, ethane,propane, iso-butane, n-butane, iso-pentane, n-pentane, 2-methyl pentane,and n-hexane) and calculated molar concentrations. Thus the graphedmethane to normal C6 molar percentages for all of the experiments do notinclude the molar contribution of the unidentified hydrocarbon gasspecies listed in Tables 2, 4, 5, 7, or 9 (e.g., peak numbers 2, 6,8-11, 13, 15-22, 24-26, and 28-78 in Table 2).

Liquid samples collected during the heating tests as described inExamples 1, 3 and 4 were analyzed by whole oil gas chromatography (WOGC)according to the following procedure. Samples, QA/QC standards andblanks (carbon disulfide) were analyzed using an Ultra 1 Methyl Siloxanecolumn (25 m length, 0.32 μm diameter, 0.52 μm film thickness) in anAgilent 6890 GC equipped with a split/splitless injector, autosamplerand flame ionization detector (FID). Samples were injected onto thecapillary column in split mode with a split ratio of 80:1. The GC oventemperature was kept constant at 20° C. for 5 min, programmed from 20°C. to 300° C. at a rate of 5° C.min⁻¹, and then maintained at 300° C.for 30 min (total run time=90 min.). The injector temperature wasmaintained at 300° C. and the FID temperature set at 310° C. Helium wasused as carrier gas at a flow of 2.1 mL min⁻¹. Peak identifications andintegrations were performed using Chemstation software Rev.A.10.02[1757] (Agilent Tech. 1990-2003) supplied with the Agilent instrument.

Standard mixtures of hydrocarbons were analyzed in parallel by the WOGCmethod described above and by an Agilent 6890 GC equipped with asplit/splitless injector, autosampler and mass selective detector (MS)under the same conditions. Identification of the hydrocarbon compoundswas conducted by analysis of the mass spectrum of each peak from theGC-MS. Since conditions were identical for both instruments, peakidentification conducted on the GC-MS could be transferred to the peaksobtained on the GC-FID. Using these data, a compound table relatingretention time and peak identification was set up in the GC-FIDChemstation. This table was used for peak identification.

The gas chromatograms obtained on the liquid samples (FIGS. 4, 9 and 11)were analyzed using a pseudo-component technique. The convention usedfor identifying each pseudo-component was to integrate all contributionsfrom normal alkane to next occurring normal alkane with thepseudo-component being named by the late eluting n-alkane. For example,the C-10 pseudo-component would be obtained from integration beginningjust past normal-C9 and continue just through normal-C10. The carbonnumber weight % and mole % values for the pseudo-components obtained inthis manner were assigned using correlations developed by Katz andFiroozabadi (Katz, D. L., and A. Firoozabadi, 1978. Predicting phasebehavior of condensate/crude-oil systems using methane interactioncoefficients, J. Petroleum Technology (November 1978), 1649-1655).Results of the pseudo-component analyses for Examples 1, 3 and 4 areshown in Tables 10, 11 and 12.

An exemplary pseudo component weight percent calculation is presentedbelow with reference to Table 10 for the C10 pseudo component forExample 1 in order to illustrate the technique. First, the C-10pseudo-component total area is obtained from integration of the areabeginning just past normal-C9 and continued just through normal-C10 asdescribed above. The total integration area for the C10 pseudo componentis 10551.700 pico-ampere-seconds (pAs). The total C10 pseudo componentintegration area (10551.700 pAs) is then multiplied by the C10 pseudocomponent density (0.7780 g/ml) to yield an “area×density” of 8209.22pAs g/ml. Similarly, the peak integration areas for each pseudocomponent and all lighter listed compounds (i.e., nC3, iC4, nC4, iC5 &nC5) are determined and multiplied by their respective densities toyield “area×density” numbers for each respective pseudo component andlisted compound. The respective determined “area×density” numbers foreach pseudo component and listed compound is then summed to determine a“total area×density” number. The “total area×density” number for Example1 is 96266.96 pAs g/ml. The C10 pseudo component weight percentage isthen obtained by dividing the C10 pseudo component “area×density” number(8209.22 pAs g/ml) by the “total area×density” number (96266.96 pAsg/ml) to obtain the C10 pseudo component weight percentage of 8.53weight percent.

An exemplary pseudo component molar percent calculation is presentedbelow with reference to Table 10 for the C10 pseudo component forExample 1 in order to further illustrate the pseudo component technique.First, the C-10 pseudo-component total area is obtained from integrationof the area beginning just past normal-C9 and continued just throughnormal-C10 as described above. The total integration area for the C10pseudo component is 10551.700 pico-ampere-seconds (pAs). The total C10pseudo component integration area (10551.700 pAs) is then multiplied bythe C10 pseudo component density (0.7780 g/ml) to yield an“area×density” of 8209.22 pAs g/ml. Similarly, the integration areas foreach pseudo component and all lighter listed compounds (i.e., nC3, iC4,nC4, iC5 & nC5) are determined and multiplied by their respectivedensities to yield “area×density” numbers for each respective pseudocomponent and listed compound. The C10 pseudo component “area×density”number (8209.22 pAs g/ml) is then divided by the C10 pseudo componentmolecular weight (134.00 g/mol) to yield a C10 pseudo component“area×density/molecular weight” number of 61.26 pAs mol/ml. Similarly,the “area×density” number for each pseudo component and listed compoundis then divided by such components or compounds respective molecularweight to yield an “area×density/molecular weight” number for eachrespective pseudo component and listed compound. The respectivedetermined “area×density/molecular weight” numbers for each pseudocomponent and listed compound is then summed to determine a “totalarea×density/molecular weight” number. The total “totalarea×density/molecular weight” number for Example 1 is 665.28 pAsmol/ml. The C10 pseudo component molar percentage is then obtained bydividing the C10 pseudo component “area×density/molecular weight” number(61.26 pAs mol/ml) by the “total area×density/molecular weight” number(665.28 pAs mol/ml) to obtain the C10 pseudo component molar percentageof 9.21 molar percent.

TABLE 10 Pseudo-components for Example 1 - GC of liquid - 0 stress Avg.Boiling Density Molecular Component Area (cts.) Area % Pt. (° F.) (g/ml)Wt. (g/mol) Wt. % Mol % nC₃ 41.881 0.03 −43.73 0.5069 44.10 0.02 0.07iC₄ 120.873 0.10 10.94 0.5628 58.12 0.07 0.18 nC₄ 805.690 0.66 31.100.5840 58.12 0.49 1.22 iC₅ 1092.699 0.89 82.13 0.6244 72.15 0.71 1.42nC₅ 2801.815 2.29 96.93 0.6311 72.15 1.84 3.68 Pseudo C₆ 7150.533 5.84147.00 0.6850 84.00 5.09 8.76 Pseudo C₇ 10372.800 8.47 197.50 0.722096.00 7.78 11.73 Pseudo C₈ 11703.500 9.56 242.00 0.7450 107.00 9.0612.25 Pseudo C₉ 11776.200 9.61 288.00 0.7640 121.00 9.35 11.18 PseudoC₁₀ 10551.700 8.61 330.50 0.7780 134.00 8.53 9.21 Pseudo C₁₁ 9274.3337.57 369.00 0.7890 147.00 7.60 7.48 Pseudo C₁₂ 8709.231 7.11 407.000.8000 161.00 7.24 6.50 Pseudo C₁₃ 7494.549 6.12 441.00 0.8110 175.006.31 5.22 Pseudo C₁₄ 6223.394 5.08 475.50 0.8220 190.00 5.31 4.05 PseudoC₁₅ 6000.179 4.90 511.00 0.8320 206.00 5.19 3.64 Pseudo C₁₆ 5345.7914.36 542.00 0.8390 222.00 4.66 3.04 Pseudo C₁₇ 4051.886 3.31 572.000.8470 237.00 3.57 2.18 Pseudo C₁₈ 3398.586 2.77 595.00 0.8520 251.003.01 1.73 Pseudo C₁₉ 2812.101 2.30 617.00 0.8570 263.00 2.50 1.38 PseudoC₂₀ 2304.651 1.88 640.50 0.8620 275.00 2.06 1.09 Pseudo C₂₁ 2038.9251.66 664.00 0.8670 291.00 1.84 0.91 Pseudo C₂₂ 1497.726 1.22 686.000.8720 305.00 1.36 0.64 Pseudo C₂₃ 1173.834 0.96 707.00 0.8770 318.001.07 0.49 Pseudo C₂₄ 822.762 0.67 727.00 0.8810 331.00 0.75 0.33 PseudoC₂₅ 677.938 0.55 747.00 0.8850 345.00 0.62 0.26 Pseudo C₂₆ 532.788 0.43766.00 0.8890 359.00 0.49 0.20 Pseudo C₂₇ 459.465 0.38 784.00 0.8930374.00 0.43 0.16 Pseudo C₂₈ 413.397 0.34 802.00 0.8960 388.00 0.38 0.14Pseudo C₂₉ 522.898 0.43 817.00 0.8990 402.00 0.49 0.18 Pseudo C₃₀336.968 0.28 834.00 0.9020 416.00 0.32 0.11 Pseudo C₃₁ 322.495 0.26850.00 0.9060 430.00 0.30 0.10 Pseudo C₃₂ 175.615 0.14 866.00 0.9090444.00 0.17 0.05 Pseudo C₃₃ 165.912 0.14 881.00 0.9120 458.00 0.16 0.05Pseudo C₃₄ 341.051 0.28 895.00 0.9140 472.00 0.32 0.10 Pseudo C₃₅286.861 0.23 908.00 0.9170 486.00 0.27 0.08 Pseudo C₃₆ 152.814 0.12922.00 0.9190 500.00 0.15 0.04 Pseudo C₃₇ 356.947 0.29 934.00 0.9220514.00 0.34 0.10 Pseudo C₃₈ 173.428 0.14 947.00 0.9240 528.00 0.17 0.05Totals 122484.217 100.00 100.00 100.00

TABLE 11 Pseudo-components for Example 3 - GC of liquid - 400 psi stressAvg. Boiling Density Molecular Wt. Component Area Area % Pt. (° F.)(g/ml) (g/mol) Wt. % Mol % nC₃ 35.845 0.014 −43.730 0.5069 44.10 0.010.03 iC₄ 103.065 0.041 10.940 0.5628 58.12 0.03 0.07 nC₄ 821.863 0.32831.100 0.5840 58.12 0.24 0.62 iC₅ 1187.912 0.474 82.130 0.6244 72.150.37 0.77 nC₅ 3752.655 1.498 96.930 0.6311 72.15 1.20 2.45 Pseudo C₆12040.900 4.805 147.000 0.6850 84.00 4.17 7.34 Pseudo C₇ 20038.600 7.997197.500 0.7220 96.00 7.31 11.26 Pseudo C₈ 24531.500 9.790 242.000 0.7450107.00 9.23 12.76 Pseudo C₉ 25315.000 10.103 288.000 0.7640 121.00 9.7711.94 Pseudo C₁₀ 22640.400 9.035 330.500 0.7780 134.00 8.90 9.82 PseudoC₁₁ 20268.100 8.089 369.000 0.7890 147.00 8.08 8.13 Pseudo C₁₂ 18675.6007.453 407.000 0.8000 161.00 7.55 6.93 Pseudo C₁₃ 16591.100 6.621 441.0000.8110 175.00 6.80 5.74 Pseudo C₁₄ 13654.000 5.449 475.500 0.8220 190.005.67 4.41 Pseudo C₁₅ 13006.300 5.191 511.000 0.8320 206.00 5.47 3.92Pseudo C₁₆ 11962.200 4.774 542.000 0.8390 222.00 5.07 3.38 Pseudo C₁₇8851.622 3.533 572.000 0.8470 237.00 3.79 2.36 Pseudo C₁₈ 7251.438 2.894595.000 0.8520 251.00 3.12 1.84 Pseudo C₁₉ 5946.166 2.373 617.000 0.8570263.00 2.57 1.45 Pseudo C₂₀ 4645.178 1.854 640.500 0.8620 275.00 2.021.09 Pseudo C₂₁ 4188.168 1.671 664.000 0.8670 291.00 1.83 0.93 PseudoC₂₂ 2868.636 1.145 686.000 0.8720 305.00 1.26 0.61 Pseudo C₂₃ 2188.8950.874 707.000 0.8770 318.00 0.97 0.45 Pseudo C₂₄ 1466.162 0.585 727.0000.8810 331.00 0.65 0.29 Pseudo C₂₅ 1181.133 0.471 747.000 0.8850 345.000.53 0.23 Pseudo C₂₆ 875.812 0.350 766.000 0.8890 359.00 0.39 0.16Pseudo C₂₇ 617.103 0.246 784.000 0.8930 374.00 0.28 0.11 Pseudo C₂₈538.147 0.215 802.000 0.8960 388.00 0.24 0.09 Pseudo C₂₉ 659.027 0.263817.000 0.8990 402.00 0.30 0.11 Pseudo C₃₀ 1013.942 0.405 834.000 0.9020416.00 0.46 0.16 Pseudo C₃₁ 761.259 0.304 850.000 0.9060 430.00 0.350.12 Pseudo C₃₂ 416.031 0.166 866.000 0.9090 444.00 0.19 0.06 Pseudo C₃₃231.207 0.092 881.000 0.9120 458.00 0.11 0.03 Pseudo C₃₄ 566.926 0.226895.000 0.9140 472.00 0.26 0.08 Pseudo C₃₅ 426.697 0.170 908.000 0.9170486.00 0.20 0.06 Pseudo C₃₆ 191.626 0.076 922.000 0.9190 500.00 0.090.03 Pseudo C₃₇ 778.713 0.311 934.000 0.9220 514.00 0.36 0.10 Pseudo C₃₈285.217 0.114 947.000 0.9240 528.00 0.13 0.04 Totals 250574.144 100.000100.00 100.00

TABLE 12 Pseudo-components for Example 4 - GC of liquid -1000 psi stressAvg. Boiling Density Molecular Wt. Component Area Area % Pt. (° F.)(g/ml) (g/mol) Wt. % Mol % nC₃ 44.761 0.023 −43.730 0.5069 44.10 0.010.05 iC₄ 117.876 0.060 10.940 0.5628 58.12 0.04 0.11 nC₄ 927.866 0.47231.100 0.5840 58.12 0.35 0.87 iC₅ 1082.570 0.550 82.130 0.6244 72.150.44 0.88 nC₅ 3346.533 1.701 96.930 0.6311 72.15 1.37 2.74 Pseudo C₆9579.443 4.870 147.000 0.6850 84.00 4.24 7.31 Pseudo C₇ 16046.200 8.158197.500 0.7220 96.00 7.49 11.29 Pseudo C₈ 19693.300 10.012 242.0000.7450 107.00 9.48 12.83 Pseudo C₉ 20326.300 10.334 288.000 0.7640121.00 10.04 12.01 Pseudo C₁₀ 18297.600 9.302 330.500 0.7780 134.00 9.209.94 Pseudo C₁₁ 16385.600 8.330 369.000 0.7890 147.00 8.36 8.23 PseudoC₁₂ 15349.000 7.803 407.000 0.8000 161.00 7.94 7.14 Pseudo C₁₃ 13116.5006.668 441.000 0.8110 175.00 6.88 5.69 Pseudo C₁₄ 10816.100 5.499 475.5000.8220 190.00 5.75 4.38 Pseudo C₁₅ 10276.900 5.225 511.000 0.8320 206.005.53 3.88 Pseudo C₁₆ 9537.818 4.849 542.000 0.8390 222.00 5.17 3.37Pseudo C₁₇ 6930.611 3.523 572.000 0.8470 237.00 3.79 2.32 Pseudo C₁₈5549.802 2.821 595.000 0.8520 251.00 3.06 1.76 Pseudo C₁₉ 4440.457 2.257617.000 0.8570 263.00 2.46 1.35 Pseudo C₂₀ 3451.250 1.755 640.500 0.8620275.00 1.92 1.01 Pseudo C₂₁ 3133.251 1.593 664.000 0.8670 291.00 1.760.87 Pseudo C₂₂ 2088.036 1.062 686.000 0.8720 305.00 1.18 0.56 PseudoC₂₃ 1519.460 0.772 707.000 0.8770 318.00 0.86 0.39 Pseudo C₂₄ 907.4730.461 727.000 0.8810 331.00 0.52 0.23 Pseudo C₂₅ 683.205 0.347 747.0000.8850 345.00 0.39 0.16 Pseudo C₂₆ 493.413 0.251 766.000 0.8890 359.000.28 0.11 Pseudo C₂₇ 326.831 0.166 784.000 0.8930 374.00 0.19 0.07Pseudo C₂₈ 272.527 0.139 802.000 0.8960 388.00 0.16 0.06 Pseudo C₂₉291.862 0.148 817.000 0.8990 402.00 0.17 0.06 Pseudo C₃₀ 462.840 0.235834.000 0.9020 416.00 0.27 0.09 Pseudo C₃₁ 352.886 0.179 850.000 0.9060430.00 0.21 0.07 Pseudo C₃₂ 168.635 0.086 866.000 0.9090 444.00 0.100.03 Pseudo C₃₃ 67.575 0.034 881.000 0.9120 458.00 0.04 0.01 Pseudo C₃₄95.207 0.048 895.000 0.9140 472.00 0.06 0.02 Pseudo C₃₅ 226.660 0.115908.000 0.9170 486.00 0.13 0.04 Pseudo C₃₆ 169.729 0.086 922.000 0.9190500.00 0.10 0.03 Pseudo C₃₇ 80.976 0.041 934.000 0.9220 514.00 0.05 0.01Pseudo C₃₈ 42.940 0.022 947.000 0.9240 528.00 0.03 0.01 Totals196699.994 100.000 100.00 100.00

TOC and Rock-eval tests were performed on specimens from oil shale blockCM-1B taken at the same stratigraphic interval as the specimens testedby the Parr heating method described in Examples 1-5. These testsresulted in a TOC of 21% and a Rock-eval Hydrogen Index of 872 mg/g-toc.

The TOC and rock-eval procedures described below were performed on theoil shale specimens remaining after the Parr heating tests described inExamples 1-5. Results are shown in Table 13.

The Rock-Eval pyrolysis analyses described above were performed usingthe following procedures. Rock-Eval pyrolysis analyses were performed oncalibration rock standards (IFP standard #55000), blanks, and samplesusing a Delsi Rock-Eval II instrument. Rock samples were crushed,micronized, and air-dried before loading into Rock-Eval crucibles.Between 25 and 100 mg of powdered-rock samples were loaded into thecrucibles depending on the total organic carbon (TOC) content of thesample. Two or three blanks were run at the beginning of each day topurge the system and stabilize the temperature. Two or three samples ofIFP calibration standard #55000 with weight of 100+/−1 mg were run tocalibrate the system. If the Rock-Eval T_(max) parameter was 419°C.+/−2° C. on these standards, analyses proceeded with samples. Thestandard was also run before and after every 10 samples to monitor theinstrument's performance.

The Rock-Eval pyrolysis technique involves the rate-programmed heatingof a powdered rock sample to a high temperature in an inert (helium)atmosphere and the characterization of products generated from thethermal breakdown of chemical bonds. After introduction of the samplethe pyrolysis oven was held isothermally at 300° C. for three minutes.Hydrocarbons generated during this stage are detected by aflame-ionization detector (FID) yielding the S₁ peak. The pyrolysis-oventemperature was then increased at a gradient of 25° C./minute up to 550°C., where the oven was held isothermally for one minute. Hydrocarbonsgenerated during this step were detected by the FID and yielded the S₂peak.

Hydrogen Index (HI) is calculated by normalizing the S₂ peak (expressedas mg_(hydrocarbons)/g_(rock)) to weight % TOC (Total Organic Carbondetermined independently) as follows:

HI=(S ₂/TOC)*100

where HI is expressed as mg_(hydrocarbons)/g_(TOC)

Total Organic Carbon (TOC) was determined by well known methods suitablefor geological samples—i.e., any carbonate rock present was removed byacid treatment followed by combustion of the remaining material toproduce and measure organic based carbon in the form of CO2.

TABLE 13 TOC and Rock-eval results on oil shale specimens after the Parrheating tests Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4 Example 5 TOC (%)12.07 10.83 10.62 11.22 11.63 HI 77 83 81 62 77 (mg/g-toc)

The API gravity of Examples 1-5 was estimated by estimating the roomtemperature specific gravity (SG) of the liquids collected and theresults are reported in Table 14. The API gravity was estimated from thedetermined specific gravity by applying the following formula:

API gravity=(141.5/SG)−131.5

The specific gravity of each liquid sample was estimated using thefollowing procedure. An empty 50 μl Hamilton Model 1705 gastight syringewas weighed on a Mettler AE 163 digital balance to determine the emptysyringe weight. The syringe was then loaded by filling the syringe witha volume of liquid. The volume of liquid in the syringe was noted. Theloaded syringe was then weighed. The liquid sample weight was thenestimated by subtracting the loaded syringe measured weight from themeasured empty syringe weight. The specific gravity was then estimatedby dividing the liquid sample weight by the syringe volume occupied bythe liquid sample.

TABLE 14 Estimated API Gravity of liquid samples from Examples 1-5Example Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4 Example 5 API Gravity29.92 30.00 27.13 32.70 30.00

The above-described processes may be of merit in connection with therecovery of hydrocarbons in the Piceance Basin of Colorado. Some haveestimated that in some oil shale deposits of the Western United States,up to 1 million barrels of oil may be recoverable per surface acre. Onestudy has estimated the oil shale resource within the nahcolite-bearingportions of the oil shale formations of the Piceance Basin to be 400billion barrels of shale oil in place. Overall, up to 1 trillion barrelsof shale oil may exist in the Piceance Basin alone.

Certain features of the present invention are described in terms of aset of numerical upper limits and a set of numerical lower limits. Itshould be appreciated that ranges formed by any combination of theselimits are within the scope of the invention unless otherwise indicated.Although some of the dependent claims have single dependencies inaccordance with U.S. practice, each of the features in any of suchdependent claims can be combined with each of the features of one ormore of the other dependent claims dependent upon the same independentclaim or claims.

While it will be apparent that the invention herein described is wellcalculated to achieve the benefits and advantages set forth above, itwill be appreciated that the invention is susceptible to modification,variation and change without departing from the spirit thereof.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for heating a subsurface formation usingelectrically resistive heat, comprising: providing a first wellbore atleast partially within a subsurface formation, the first wellbore havingan electrically conductive first member, an electrically conductivesecond member, and an electrically conductive first granular material inthe first wellbore, wherein the first granular material is positioned toprovide electrical communication between the electrically conductivefirst member and the electrically conductive second member, wherein theelectrically conductive first member consists of an elongated rod, wireor cable and the electrically conductive second member consists of anelongated rod, wire or cable, wherein the electrically conductive firstmember terminates at a first depth within the subsurface formation andthe electrically conductive second member terminates at a second depththat is lower than the first depth and within the subsurface formation,and wherein neither the electrically conductive first member nor theelectrically conductive second member is in electrical contact with awell casing; providing a second wellbore at least partially within thesubsurface formation, the second wellbore having an electricallyconductive third member, an electrically conductive fourth member, andan electrically conductive second granular material in the secondwellbore, wherein the second granular material is positioned to provideelectrical communication between the electrically conductive thirdmember and the electrically conductive fourth member, wherein theelectrically conductive third member consists of an elongated rod, wire,or cable and the electrically conductive fourth member consists of anelongated rod, wire, or cable, wherein the electrically conductive thirdmember terminates at a third depth within the subsurface formation andthe electrically conductive fourth member terminates at a fourth depththat is lower than the third depth and within the subsurface formation,and wherein neither the electrically conductive third member nor theelectrically conductive fourth member is in electrical contract with awell casing; passing a first electrical current through the electricallyconductive first member, the first granular material and theelectrically conductive second member, thereby generating first heat,the generated first heat produced primarily through electrical resistiveheating of the first granular material; passing a second electricalcurrent through the electrically conductive third member, the secondgranular material and the electrically conductive fourth member, therebygenerating second heat, the generated second heat produced primarilythrough electrical resistive heating of the second granular material;and heating formation hydrocarbons located substantially equidistantfrom the first wellbore and the second wellbore primarily with thegenerated first heat, second heat or both.
 2. The method of claim 1,wherein the subsurface formation is an organic-rich rock formation. 3.The method of claim 2, wherein the subsurface formation contains heavyhydrocarbons.
 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the subsurface formationis an oil shale formation and the generated first heat, second heat orboth cause the formation hydrocarbons to be substantially pyrolyzed toform hydrocarbon fluids.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein: thegenerated first heat is comprised of electrical resistive heating of theelectrically conductive first member, the first granular material andthe electrically conductive second member; and at least 75% of thegenerated first heat is generated by electrical resistive heating of thefirst granular material.
 6. The method of claim 4, wherein the firstgranular material contacts the electrically conductive first member andthe electrically conductive second member.
 7. The method of claim 4,wherein there is no substantial flow of hydrocarbon fluid through thefirst granular material.
 8. The method of claim 4, wherein the firstgranular material comprises calcined petroleum coke, graphite, metaloxides, or ceramic particles coated with thin metal layers.
 9. Themethod of claim 4, wherein the first electrical current flowssubstantially longitudinally through the first granular material. 10.The method of claim 9, where the first granular material has an in-placeelectrical resistivity of about 10⁻⁵ to 10⁻² ohm-meters.
 13. The methodof claim 4, wherein the first wellbore is substantially vertical. 14.The method of claim 4, wherein a lower portion of the first wellbore isdeviated.
 15. A method for heating a subsurface formation usingelectrically resistive heat, comprising: providing a first wellbore atleast partially within a subsurface formation, the first wellbore havingan electrically conductive first member, an electrically conductivesecond member, and an electrically conductive first granular material inthe first wellbore, wherein the first granular material is positioned toprovide electrical communication between the electrically conductivefirst member and the electrically conductive second member, wherein theelectrically conductive first member comprises a slug of highlyconductive granular material interspersed between a slug of lessconductive granular material than the slug of highly conductive granularmaterial so that only subsections of a wellbore receiving the slug ofless conductive granular material will be substantially heated;providing a second wellbore at least partially within the subsurfaceformation, the second wellbore having an electrically conductive thirdmember, an electrically conductive fourth member, and an electricallyconductive second granular material in the second wellbore, wherein thesecond granular material is positioned to provide electricalcommunication between the electrically conductive third member and theelectrically conductive fourth member; passing a first electricalcurrent through the electrically conductive first member, the firstgranular material and the electrically conductive second member, therebygenerating first heat, the generated first heat produced primarilythrough electrical resistive heating of the first granular material;passing a second electrical current through the electrically conductivethird member, the second granular material and the electricallyconductive fourth member, thereby generating second heat, the generatedsecond heat produced primarily through electrical resistive heating ofthe second granular material; and heating formation hydrocarbons locatedsubstantially equidistant from the first wellbore and the secondwellbore primarily with the generated first heat, second heat or both.16. The method of claim 15, wherein the subsurface formation is an oilshale formation and the generated first heat, second heat, or both causethe subsurface formation hydrocarbons to be substantially pyrolyzed toform hydrocarbon fluids.